
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 
T J) uA 

Cfpii..Ocp^rigl^t I^a- 

UNITED STATES OF A3IERICA. 
















Copyrujlit i^ecured by ih,e. Author, Rouekt Kittle. 
Freinoaf, Nebraska, A. I). isfKj. 


HISTORY AND SCIENCE 


OF 


IRRIGATION, 


Artesian and Petroleum 


AND DEE? 

! FFf- 22 

WELL DRILtlWS?*^'' 

/0'i<i'6CuZ 


By ROBERT KITTLE, 


FREMONT, NEB. 


PREFACE. 




HE AUTHOR, in offering this little book to a 


generous public, hopes to furnish suggestions of 


the best means for irrigation bv surface and underHow 
waters; for drilling artesian wells, and gas and oil 


wells. 


Look for what you want by reading the whole work 
and by the examination of chapters and sections ac¬ 
cording to the Contents. 


EDUCATIONAL. 


1. A First Book in Geology. Volcanism and Sismology. 

2. A Text Book on Systematic and Practical Geology, 

for Colleges. 

.3. A Standard Geological Chart, Teachers’ Ready Refer¬ 
ence. 

4. History and Science op Irrigation, Artesian and Petro¬ 
leum Well Drilling. 


FOR POPULAR READING. 


5. A Summary of the Geological Ages. 

Mr. Kittle is the Author of the above series of books. 
Revised and corrected by Mrs. M. A. Kittle. 








Irrigation and/Petroleum, 



i CONTENTS. 


INTRODUCTION. 

Section Page 


THE HISTORY AND SCIENCE OP IRRIOaTION, AND 
OF DEEP WELL DRILLINGS. 

CHAPTER I. 

THE CHEMISTRY OF VEGETATION. 

1 In the Laboratory of Nature. 3 

CHAPTER II. 

1 The History of Irrigation. 5 

2 Irrigation in India. 6 

3 Ancient Kingdoms Irrigated. 7 

4 Irrigation in Italy and other Countries. 8 

5 Irrigation in the United States. 9 

CHAPTER III. 

means and methods of irrigation. 

1 Catch Drains. 10 

2 Capacity of Ditches and Canals. 11 

3 The Pall of Grades for Canals. 11 

4 Ditches and the India Tank System. 12 

CHAPTER IV. 

1 Natural Water Supply. 12 

2 Rain and Melting Snows on Mountains. 13 

3 The underflow Waters of the Great Plains Region ... 13 

CHAPTER V. 

1 Basins, Dams AND Canals. 14 

2 Masonry, Rock Work. 16 

3 Wheat Irrigation in Mexico. 16 

4 Corn Irrigation in Mexico. 17 

5 Water Storage. 17 

6 Irrigation for the Cotton Crop, and others. I'l 

7 Mexican Methods, continued. 17 

8 Methods in India. 17 























Irrigation and Petroleum. 

\ 

Contents— Continued. 


CHAPTER VI. 


Section 

1 Reservoirs—Natural and Semi-Artificial 

2 The Sufficiency of Natural Water Supply. 

.3 The Natural Water Supply. 

I Water Storage for the Plains. 

5 The High Mountain Perpetual Snows. 

6 The Running Waters. 

7 Underflow and Subterranean Waters. 


'CHAPTER VII. 


Pag(^ 

18 

19 

20 
21 
22 
2.3 
23 


METHODS FOR UTILIZINO THE WATERS. 

1 First, by Tunneling under the Mountain Slopes. 24 

2 Second, by Subterranean Piping and Aqueducts. 24 

3 Water Supply, Head and Size of Canals. 2.") 

CHAPTER VIII. 


IRRIGATION ENGINEERING. 

1 Waste Weirs. 

2 Explorations for Water Supply. 

4 Local Water Supply. 

5 Great Streams. 

6 The Annual Precipitation as a Supjjly.. 

7 What the Geologist must Determine... . 

8 Dam and Basin Methods. 

9 Basin Methods. 

10 Grades for Irrigation Ditches. 

11 Irrigation in East India. 

The Putri Torrent. 

12 The Maximum Capacity of Can^ils. 

13 Methods for Immense Floods .. 

14 Head-Works of Irrigation Canals. 

If) Water Distribution on Land... 

10 The Great India Tank System. 

17 In the Province of Madras. 

18 The Inlet System. 


CHAPTER IX. 

1 Many Old and New Irrigation Mi:thods 

2 Acre Farming. 

.3 Dams and Reservoirs. 

4 Water Supply from Wells. 

5 Water Supply in the Arid Regions. 


20 

27 

27 

28 
28 
29 
29 
29 
.30 
31 

31 
.32 

32 
a3 
3.3 

33 

34 
3 .-) 


3.-) 

30 

38 

39 

40 



































Irrigation and Fetroleion. 
Contents —Continued. 


Section Paf^e 

G Amount of’Water Required per Acre for Crops. 40 

7 Cost of Water Supply for Irrigation. 40 

8 Great Plains Underflow Water Supply. 41 

9 Artesian Wells. 42 

CHAPTER X. 

1 Deep Well DKiLLiNti, to obtain Artesian Water, 

Gas and Oil Plows within the Arid Regions of the 
Great Plains and Piedmont Division of the United 
States.. 44 

2 Artesian Wells, Continued. 45 

3 History of Artesian Wells.. 4G 

4 Nebraska Artesian Well..’. 49 

CHAPTER XI. 

1 Petrolp.um..•.... 50 

2 Elements of Petroleum.^. 50 

3 Weight of Petroleum. 51 

4 The Burmese Petroleum. 51 

CHAPTER XII. 

1 History of Petroleum. 52 

2 Asphaltum... 53 

3 Napthalic Petroleum. 53 

CHAPTER XIII. 

1 Natural Elemp’.nts or Atoms of Petrolp:um. 55 

2 Explorations for Gas. 56 

3 Petroleum Pields.» 57 

4 Azoic Rock Surface Yields no Petroleum ... 57 

5 Purity of Oil and Gas. 59 

, CHAPTER XIV. 

1 Pp^TROLIFEROUS AND NoN-PeTROLIFEROUS RoCKS . . . 59 

Geological Ages and Periods. 59 

2 Ages Briefly named. . . GO 

3 Rocks Representing the Periods and Ages . .. 61 

4 The Rocky Formations. 63 

5 Depth of Petroleum Wells. 65 

6 Dead Line. ... 65 

7 Thickness of the Petroleum Stratum. 65 





























Irrigation and Petroleum. 
Contents —Continued. 


CHAPTER XV. 

Section Page 

1 History op Oil Wells. 6G 

2 The Origin of Petroleum . 6G 

CHAPTER XVI. 

1 Oil Well Industries. 70 

2 Ohio Petroleum Fields. 72 

3 Petroleum Exports. 72 

CHAPTER XVII. 

1 Indiana Gas Wells.,. .... 72 

2 Gas Booming Towns. 73 

CHAPTER XVIII. 

1 The Importance of Deep Well Drillings. 75 

2 The Farmer Should be the Land Owner. 77 

3 Will Irrigation Pay?. 78 

4 What Shall the Irrigator Raise?. 79 

Ira C. Hubbel on Irrigation Machinery. 81 

A Practical Application.. ............ 82 

Another System Explained. 85 

Pumped by an Engine. 8G 

Cost of Operation. 89 

To Accomplish Best Results. 89 

Facts Worth Remembering. 90 

Capacity of Cause Pump. 91 

. LIST PRICES. 

Cause Pumps. 91 

Standard Wrought Iron Pipe... . . 92 

Harass Jacket Points. 92 

Fittings for Gause Pumps. 92 

Irrigation Pump. 93 

Nebraska Pumps. 94 

The Fairbanks-Charter Gasoline Engine. 95 

Fairbanks-Morse Centrifugal Pumps. 9G 

Capacities and Prices... 9G 

Observation. 97 

Pumping Capacity of Wind Mills.98-99 


































THE HISTORY AND SCIENCE OF IRRIGATION 


-AND OF- 

DEEP AVELL DRILLING FOR WATER, GAS AND PETROLEUM. 


INTRODUCTION. 

Section 1.—1. The great plains, serai-arid, arid, 
and desert lands in this and other nations makes the 
study of the science of irrigation and deep well drill¬ 
ing of the greatest importance to mankind for the dis¬ 
covery of flows of artesian water, gas, petroleum and 
any other valuable minerals, which may be buried 
under the surface in the stratified rocks, and which 
might add to the means necessary for the support of 
an enlightened and civilized people; where otherwise 
there must forever exist only desert regions, unfit for 
human habitation. 

2. These regions, it is confidently believed, can be 
made susceptible of supporting a A^ery dense population 
of intelligent and happy people in comfort, plenty, 
wealth and general prosperity, by methods of irriga¬ 
tion and judicious cultivation of small irrigated farms, 
by the use of the natural water supply from precip¬ 
itation and under-flow reached by wells. And by 
utilizing natural gas, petroleum, and other minerals 
which may be found here, as sources of wealth, to¬ 
gether with all the means for the production and 
groAvth of all agricultural and horticultural vegetation. 
Suitable soil and a certain amount of water and sun¬ 
shine is naturally required. 

3. The water may come to the seeds and plants by 
precipitation, percolation or capillary attraction from 
natural causes sufliciently, or only partially sufficient, 



4 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 

always be of great interest to the horticulturist and 
agriculturist, to understand the proportions to each 
other, with which these naturally unite in the several 
plants, desired to be grown; and whether there is to be 
found in the soil, where the plant is to be grown, all 
the natural elements needed, or whether some one or 
more must be supplied as a fertilizer; and the most 
economical method and condition under which to apply 
it. 

3. Irrigation always assists the operations of solv¬ 
ing the plant-food existing in the soil, to sustain its 
life and growth. The moisture furnished by irrigation 
in a special manner sets free the carbon and nitrogen 
otherwise held in solid compounds. 

4. “ Liquid nitrate of soda is said to be one of the 
best manures which may be mixed with bone black. 

5. But the farmer who places a tank or cistern so 
that all the animal urine from his stalls will be caught 
and saved, to be sprinkled on his crops, particularly 
on early garden vegetables, will find that this manure 
wiU equal the nitrate of soda as a fertilizer. 

6. Liquid urinic manure, as above, saved from one 
cow, as an experiment, made for one year, in Denmark, 
showed that of 194 pounds of nitrogen, contained in 
the food consumed, forty-five and one-fifth pounds 
went into her-milk, and seventy-three and three-fourths 
pounds went into her urine.”— [Rural ISfew Yorker.') 

7. Frank G. Carpenter, in a letter dated May, 
1894, from Chinkiang, China, says that ‘‘Everything 
is saved. Thousands of men do nothing else but 
gather up bits of fertilizers and sell them. The refuse 
of a rich family will bring more than that of a poor 
one, and the slops of the foreign part of Shanghai are 
farmed out annually for a sum which gives the city the 
most of its educational fund. Potato peelings, the 
parings of finger nails, the shavings of the head form 
parts of the fertilizing material, and this is usually put 


5 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 

together in such liquid form that not a bit of it is 
wasted. The manure is kept in great vats and the 
farm is watered like a garden. Each plat gets its 
daily food and drink. A dipper full from the vat is 
put into each bucket of water and the mixture is poured 
in at the roots of the plants. 

8. All over, throughout this part of China, such 
fertilization goes on, and from $20 to $30 a year is 
sometimes spent on an acre of land.” But here are 
acre farms; some holdings of one-tenth of an acre, sup¬ 
porting families often of six persons. 


CHAPTER II. 

THE PIISTORY OF IRRIGATION. 


Section 1. — 1. It is first necessary to have some 
general knowledge of the history of irrigation to well 
appreciate its practical methods and its great value. 

IRRIGATION BEGAN IN EDEN. 

2. Before it had been said unto Adam “ That in the 
sweat of thy face shalt thou eat thy bread.” (3d Gen. 
19). “The Lord planted a garden eastward of Eden, 
and there He j)ut man whom he had formed. 

And a river went out of Eden to water the garden.” 
(2d Gen. 8:10). 

From such a record it seems that in cultivating the 
Garden of Eden, Adam had to irrigate or water the 
garden with water taken fi-om the river. 

IRRIGATION IN EGYPT. 

3. During the reign of King Moeris (B. C. 2084) 
for the purposes of utilizing the annual overflow of the 
Nile River, and for the storage of the surplus water. 

4. The king had a great storage reservoir con- 




6 Irrigation and Petroleum. 

structed which has ever since been called after the 
name of the kinor and is still known as Lake Moeris. 

5. Its circumference is 3,600 stadia, equal to 
2,184,300 feet—413^83 miles. 

6. This king, to make it evident to all future gen¬ 
erations, that this lake was an artiticial work and not 
the work of natural causes, or of “ any god;” he, be¬ 
fore the water was let into it, caused two great pyra¬ 
mids to be founded and built in and below its bottom; 
and to the heiojht of three hundred feet on each of 
which he caused a throne to be built. (As the length 
and breadth are not given of the lake it may have occu¬ 
pied a portion of a canon or valley). 

7. “ The main canal by which this lake was filled 
and supplied with water led from the Nile to the lake, 
a distance of 32 miles, having a width of 50 feet. 

And it was constructed with sluices, so that these 
could be opened and closed as occasion may require, to 
regulate the quantity of water and irrigate the land. 

9. Fish, by the king’s command had been planted 
in Lake Moeris, which not only supplied the monarch’s 
table, but also yielded him a large revenue. 

10. At the time when Lake Moeris was constructed, 
Egypt contained 20,000 cities. One of these cities had 
100 gates, with sufficient population, so that out of 
each of these several gates could be sent 10,000 soldiers 
at the same moment; an army of 1,000,000 soldiers.” 
— {^Rolll7i.) 

IRRIGATION IN INDIA. 

Section 2.—1. “The great reservoir which was 
built about 1500 A. D., in India, has since been partly' 
destroyed. It was built for irrigation purposes, and 
known as the Muduk Tank. The embankments form¬ 
ing it were 110 feet high, 1,000 feet wide at their base. 
The inner slopes were as 1 to 2-^, to 1 to 3. And they 
were riveted with large bowlders. When filled its 
greatest depth of water was 95 feet.” 


Irrigation and Petroleum, 

COST AND MA(4NITUDE OF IRRIGATION IN INDIA. 


7 


2. In the early part of the present century it was 
estimated that England had expended in India for irri¬ 
gation purposes $165,000,000. 

3. And had built reservoirs and canals which were 
sufficient to supply water for the irrigation of 15,000,- 
000 acres of arid lands. 

“And now have tanks, reservoirs and canals within 
the Presidency of Madra alone to irrigate 20,000,000 
acres. 

THE RAVERI RIVER 

4. Is made to irrigate at its delta 9,000,000 acres; sup¬ 
plying in each second of time one cubic foot of water 
on each 66 acres,” which is equal to more than 3,568 
cubic feet of water on each acre every hour, which if 
wholly used would cover the irrigated land over eleven 
inches deep. “ The maximum flow of the water in the 
river is 280,000 cubic feet per second.” 

“ THE GORDOVARI RIVER.” 

5. “This river discharges 1,210,000 cubic feet per 
second. Here $7,250,000 has been expended, and for 
the irrigation of 670,000 acres, which produce two crops 
each year. But these irrigation works are yet un¬ 
finished. 

6. We have mentioned only these river irrigation 
works in India, still there are too many other rivers 
and waters there, which have been and are being 
utilized for irrigation, to now be specially mentioned. 
Some others of India’s irrigation works will be noticed 
further on, when we speak of the various engineering 
irrigation methods, etc. 

THE ANCIENT KINGDOMS IRRIGATED. 

Section 3.— 1 . “To know that irrigation has been 
extensively practiced in the great kingdoms that have 
risen and fallen in past ages, and practiced in each of 


8 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 
them while their civilization was at its greatest heights, 
should stimulate our consideration of its importance. 

2. It is a well attested historical fact that irrigation 
was practiced anciently and still in some of the states 
of Babylonia, Assyria, Persia, Palestine, Syria, Asia, 
Egypt, Morocco and other parts of Africa, in Greece, 
Rome, Spain, Gaul, France, and in England. 

3. “And by the prehistoric people in North and 
South America; by the ‘ Incas,’ old Peruvians, the 
Aztecs, Montezumas, in Mexico, New Mexico, Arizona 
and Kansas.— [Senator-Cross, et al.) 

4. “Irrigation in France, Spain, Germany, and 
extending into Algeria, Africa, is now offering great 
opportunities to people desiring to acquire homes.”— 
[Leon Philippe, French Chief Engineer of Irrigation.) 

IRRIGATION IN ITALY. 

Section 4.—1. The Italian government claims to 
have the grandest, or one of the grandest irrigation 
canals in the world; it is in the province of Cavour. 
It has in its construction a siphon of solid masonry 870 
feet long, and several solid masonry aqueducts; one of 
these is 635 feet long. 

IRRIGATION IN RUSSIA. 

2. Russia has 3,600,000 square miles of arid but 
irrigable lands; of these only about 494,200 acres have 
yet been irrigated, which has cost for the irrigation 
from 16.00 to 112.00 per acre.” 

IRRIGATION IN PERU. 

3. “ An interesting spectacle in Peru is the remains 
of old Inca terraces and irrigation canals on the hill¬ 
sides, now apparently utterly unpromising deserts. 

4. “While but a few years ago John Meiggs re¬ 
stored a canal along the side of the hills bounding the 
Rio Santa (Sant River) and there established a valua¬ 
ble property, which the writer saw as it grew from a 
desert into a grand plantation of immense proportions. 


9 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 

containing the greatest sugar-making machinery then 
in the world, and valued at $5,000,000.”— [From pa 2 yer 
by Delegate Fdioard F. Sears for Peru at International 
Irrigation Congress^ 1893.) 

IRRIGATION IN MEXICO. 

5. There has been much good irrigation work done in 
Old Mexico; but as we shall have occasion to mention 
it in connection with specific methods we will not now 
notice it further. 

IRRIGATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 

Section 4.—1. “The subject of irrigation in the 
United States is of such great importance as to involve 
the consideration of the possibility of the settlement of 
two-fifths of the whole area of our country, which is 
and land; the arid regions covering the great plains 
and nearly all the country west of the 97 meridian, and 
by the General Land Office estimated to contain 
542,000,000 acres.” — [It. J. Hinton and Judge 
Gregory .) 

2. It has been estimated that these lands can be so 
improved by irrigation that they will be capable of sus¬ 
taining and furnishing farm homes for millions of peo¬ 
ple, probably double the number of our present po])ula- 
tion, which would be a result worthy of the best efforts 
of our greatest statesmen and most patriotic citizens. 

PREiiisroRic irrigation in this country. 

3. “ The remains of prehistoric irrigation works have 
been found in New Mexico, Arizona, and some other 
southwestern states. These remains point back to a 
much higher civilization than that of the American 
Indian’s, when this continent was first settled.” 

EXISTING IRRIGATION WORKS. 

4. Within the last two decades there has been many 
and extensive irrigation works begun and completed in 
Oregon, California, Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Wyo- 



10 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 

ming, Nevada, New Mexico, Arizona, Kansas, Ne¬ 
braska, North Dakota, South Dakota, Utah and 
Washington states. 

5. And as we proceed in speaking of irrigation 
engineering and methods we shall notice these works 
in several states. 

6. “ In prehistoric times Arizona had large irriga¬ 
tion canals and large cities which are now found in 
ruins, that indicate a high state of civilization and 
prosperity at a time when these canals were constructed 
and in operation.”— (J. H. lUce.) 

THE EDGEMONT CANAL. 

5. “ Nebraska and Colorado are not the only states 

where the irrigation idea is bearing fruit. South Da- 
kota has swung into line in a royal fashion; |60,000 
are now being expended in the construction of an irri¬ 
gating and power canal, near Edgemont, in that state. 
The canal begins at the confluence of Beaver creek 
and the Cheyenne river, fourteen miles northwest of 
the town; traverses nineteen sections of land; enriches 
10,000 acres of splendid land, and has a final fall at 
Edgemont of seventy-two feet .”—[Western American.^ 
June 189Jf, page 11^..) 


CHAPTER III. 


MEANS AND METHODS OF IRRIGATION. 

CATCH DRAINS. 

Section 1. — 1. To catch the drainage from the 
higher table lands, and from upper valley lands, 
and to lead their surplus and waste waters upon 
lower levels of arid and semi-arid land during 
the growing seasons for crops, it has for many 
centuries been the practice in Egypt, Persia and India 




Irrigation and Petroleum. 11 

to construct dams and ditches at and from swampy 
valleys, heads of draws and ravines; and embankments 
along near the crests and slopes of hills and mountains. 
And from swamps, and catch meadows make dikes, 
ditches, canals and aqueducts, leading to lands needing 
irrigation, and there using the water, distributing it 
over the crops during the growing seasons. 

CAPACITY OP DITCHES AND CANALS. 

Section 2.—1. Irrigation ditches “and canals 
should be able to carry one cubic foot of water per 
second for each fifty-six acres to be irrigated by it, 
and three cubic feet for each section one mile square 
to be irrigated.”— [Charles W. Irish.) 

2. The Russian Irrigation Engineer says that 
“ about one cubic foot of water in a second is sufficient 
for 70 acres of land.” Probably this will do after 
three to five years of irrigation. 

3. We will have several conditions to consider as 
to necessary quantity of water required for practical 
irrigation not mentioned in the above rules. 

4. Ditches and canals are, or should be con¬ 
structed so as to carry a given number of cubic feet (or 
as sometimes expressed by miners, “acre inches”) per 
second, minute, hour, day, month, or growing season, 
of water. 

5. Narrow and shallow ditches impede the flow of 
water through them, by reason of greater friction upon 
the sides, slopes and bottoms, more than do the large 
canals carrying deeper, wider and greater flows of 
w^ater. 

FALL OF GRADES FOR CANALS. 

Section 3.—1. Two canals having the same grade, 
the one which is widest, deepest and carrying the 
greatest body of water will have the most rapid cur¬ 
rent, and deliver in proportion to the area of their 
sections of water flow, a greater amount of water per 
second. 


12 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 

2. But a properly constructed small ditch down a 
steep mountain grade may deliver a greater supply of 
water than a much larger canal having but little fall 
in its grade. 

DITCHES AND THE INDIA TANK SYSTEM. 

Sec. 4. — 1. As the supply for the irrigation of any 
given tract of land must come from a tank, reservoir, 
lake or running stream, the water must be found some 
place. Naturally at such higher level, or be forced up 
by artesian wells, or raised by artificial power to such 
higher level, before the water can well be distributed 
over the land to be irrigated. 


CHAPTER IV. 


NATURAL WATER SUPPLY. 


Section 1. — 1. The natural water supjily for all 
irrigation purposes, must have first come from natural 
seas and oceans. First having been evaporated, car¬ 
ried as mist and clouds by the winds over the land and 
mountains and there, by rain and snow been precipitated 
upon the earth as fresh water, this distilled from what 
otherwise would have been saline water and unfit for 
irrigation purposes. 

TO SAVE 'I'HE WASTE AND WINTER WATER PRECIPITATION. 

2. Darns may be constructed aci'oss near the heads of 
dry draws, ravines, canons and small mountain sti’eams, 
thus forming tanks, basins and i-eservoirs lai-ge enough 
to hold ALi. the water that may fall upon, or run from 
the higher levels than that of dams and reservoir's, dui’- 
ing the year. To be conducted by ditches, canals and 
aqueducts to the highest parts of the lands and fields to 
be irrigated thereby. 





13 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 

3. These ditches, canals and aqueducts should be 
graded so as to have a fall of not less than one foot per 
mile. 


RAIN AND MELTING SNOWS ON MOUNTAINS. 

Sec. 2.—1. The precipitation of water on the up¬ 
turned, broken and porous strata of hill and mountain 
ranges and chains, often, perhaps generally, enters into 
the porous strata to a far greater percentage than what 
runs away as mountain streams. The water so entering 
into the earth forms what we call underflows, which 
may be tapped by aqueducts, pipes, wells and artesian 
wells, so as to be lifted, pumped or conducted to the 
surface at localities, for irrigation and other purposes, 
to which surface waters could not economically be 
brought. 

WINTER IRRIGATION. 

2. Land well plowed, cross-furrowed, with shallow 
basins left on it in the fall, will absorb and retain the 
winter precipitation and running waters over it, serving 
as an early spring irrigation. 

THE UNDERFLOW OF THE GREAT PLAINS REGION. 

Sec. 3.—1. Just under the Cenozoic formations, 
which are generally the surface of the great plains and 
arid regions of the United States, as over the whole of 
those regions on the American continents, which were 
formed at the time that coast chains and Rocky moun¬ 
tain ranges were lifted above the oceans. 

2. There was formed from the shattered fragments 
of these mountain uplifts a porous stratum of bowlders, 
gravel and sands, in which there is now an inexhaust- 
able supply of water within, as a rule, not exceeding 
300 feet below the surface, and most frequently within 
from 10 to 150 feet of the surface, that may be pumped 
or lead by its own gravity through sewer piping and 
aqueducts to the surface at a small expense, or within 


14 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 

a few miles from the head of the aqueduct or ditch at 
greater expense and for greater distances. 

3. The city of Fremont, Neb., takes water by pip¬ 
ing from this stratum to flush its sewerage, and by 
pumps and drive Avells obtains sufficient to supply fam¬ 
ilies and tlie fire department with all that is now need¬ 
ed; the drive wells being all driven within less than a 
half acre of land. 

ARIZONA IRRIGATION. 

4. Arizona has 300,000 acres under irrigation, and 
along the Gila river valley there are other 300,000 
acres which was in prehistoric times irrigated; where 
are found the remains of ruined in-igation ditches 
which should be rebuilt. Besides these laiids there are 
laro-e bodies of arid and semi-arid lands which mi^ht 

o o 

and should be reclaimed by irrigation along the valley 
of the Santa Rosa river. 

NEW MEXICO. 

5. There are in New Mexico evidences of prehistoric 
irrigation, and great tracts of arid lands which may yet 
be reclaimed. The present population are doing good 
work in the way of irrigation where enterprising and 
thrifty communities flourish. 


CHAPTER V. 


BASINS, DAMS AND CANALS. 


Section 1.—1. Where a running stream furnishes 
the water to be used for irrigation, it is usual to con¬ 
struct the head works of an irrigation canal at a point 
on the stream sufficiently above the highest level of the 
land to be irrigated to admit of a grade for the ditch 
or canal, having a fall of not less than about one foot 
to the mile. 





Irrigation and Petroleum, 


15 


ARTIFICIAL BASINS. 

2. Along on the valleys of rivers, where the bed of 
the river is found to be formed of coarse sand, gravel 
and bowlders, there often are found natural basins 
some ten to forty rods, more or less, back from the im¬ 
mediate banks of the river, covering several acres, as 
small lakes. Where such basins, or lakes, do not 
occur naturally along in the bottom lands, like those of 
the Platte river, they may be excavated to a depth of 
from four to six or ten feet below the surface of the 
river, covering from three to fifteen acres, to connect 
with the irrigation ditch, and they will supply water 
sufficiently from underflow. 

3. Small dams may be constructed of earthworks 
across heads of ravines and dry runs to catch and 
reserve storm waters; and hold them for irrigation 
purposes, to be used during the growing seasons. Small 
streams and spriug waters may in like manner be held 
and used. 

5. Rivers and large creeks may, in some places, 
where their bottoms and banks are formed of clay and 
gravel, or of bowlder clay, be dammed with such ma¬ 
terial. But these and all other earthworks for irriga¬ 
tion purposes should have very broad bases, and be 
raised to several feet above high watermark, thorough¬ 
ly saturated with water, where they cross streams, and 
tamped while in the process of construction. 

6. Waste-AVE iRS of sufficient breadth to allow all 
overflow and excess of waters to pass below the lowest 
top parts of dams and embankments should be con¬ 
structed. All waste-weirs should be protected by 
thorough revetment or solid masonry. Revetment 
may be constructed of cobble stones, bowlders, rubble 
rocks, or of vitrified bricks, and should be from one 
and one-half to three feet thick. 

V. Wing dams should be used when it is only 
necessary to take a |)art of the waters of a running 


16 


Irrigatian and Petroleum. 

stream to sufficiently fill the ditches, canals and reser¬ 
voirs of some local irrigation system. 

8. The slopes of irrigation works, in the way of 
embankments, should never be less than twice the 
spread of the base to one of height, or as 1 to 2, on the 
inner slopes of the embankments; and 1 to 3, or 1 to 
4, will be better and safer. 

masonry; rock work. 

Section 2.—]. Solid masonry will in many places 
be required on large and rapid running waters, in the 
construction of wing dams, dams, canals, piers and 
aqueducts, and waste weirs and reservoirs to control 
large bodies of rapid running water. 

BORDOS (Spanish for) DAMS. 

2. Don Jose Ramon de Ybarrola, Chief of the 
Mexican Irrigation Engineers, said: “That a ditch 
to take the overflow waters from the City of Mexico, 
which is 8 miles long and 250 feet deep at its greatest 
depths, and averaging about 125 feet deep. 

3. And to construct it required the removal of 
850,000,000 cubic feet of earth, which was carried in 
baskets by the natives, on their backs, at the expense 
of the government. 

4. Irrigation in Mexico is accomplished by the 
construction of bordos and embankments built from 10 
to 25 feet high.” 


AVIIEAT IRRIGATION IN MEXICO. 

Section 3.— 1. To irrigate land for the raising of 
a wheat crop, sown from the middle of September 
to the middle of October, the first irrigation to stimu¬ 
late germination, is run on immediately after the seed 
has been sown; then after from four to six weeks later 
a second irrigation is applied, and then a third when 
the plant is full grown, to make the grain fill. 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 17 

CORN" IRRIGATION IN MEXICO. 

Section 4.—1. After the bordos have been emptied 
for wheat irrigation, they retain sufficient moisture to 
grow a crop of corn which is tlien planted in their 
bottoms. 

2. These bordos have generally been constructed at 
the expense of the land owners. 

In one case a Mexican landlord irrigated 56 square 
miles of his own land. 

3. But by a general system of irrigation the Mexi¬ 
can government provides water ready to be applied, to 
the land which has been prepared and divided into lots., 
about 2,000 feet long, or less. Then at the proper 
time these are filled with water, and then they are left 
to soak from eight to ten days. 

WATER STORAGE. 

Section 5.—1. The water having before been run, 
or collected in bordos on the middle of September 
to the middle of October, for use, and a month later 
there is found no signs of water on the soil. 

2. Then in November this ground is thinly plowed 
and press-rolled, and so left until March when cotton 
seed is sown. 

IRRIGATION FOR THE COTTON CROPS, AMD OTHERS. 

Section 6.—1. The production of cotton, wheat, 
barley and other crops are greatly increased by irriga¬ 
tion. 

MEXICAN METHODS, CONTINUED. 

Section 7.—1. The Mexican methods vary but 
little from those of other countries in obtaining and 
storing water supplies for irrigation. 

Bordos, catch dams, wing dams, reservoirs, ditches, 
canals and aqueducts, are there constructed for irriga¬ 
ting. 

MASONRY AND ROCK DAMS. 

I 

I 2. Where dams are to be constructed to hold deep 


18 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 

deep and large bodies of water, to dam large and rapid 
running streams and rivers, they should be built with 
solid masonry, and of sufficient width of base to give 
them slope at an angle of 45 degrees, or slope of 1 to 
1, but it will be better, where the strain is liable at 
times to be very severe, to make the inner slopes with 
a rise of 1 foot to a batter of 1^ feet, or 1 to 2 feet. 

IN INDIA. 

Section 8.—1. Such solid masonry was worked in 
the building of an irrigation dam in 1500 A. D., and 
it was destroyed more than a century ago by an exces¬ 
sive water flow, coming by reason of a waterspout, 
above the dam. 

2. India of our times is credited with being in ad¬ 
vance of all other countries in the extent, strength, and 
success of her irrigation works, of which we shall 
make further notice. 


CHAPTER VI. 

RESERVOIRS: NATURAL AND SEMI- 
ARTIFICIAL. 

Section 1. — 1. Natural reservoirs of water occur, 
which by more or less damming, ditching and other 
artificial improvements, have been and maybe used for 
irri station. 

2. We may notice among these snow and ice, on 
the higher levels, in dams, lakes and mountain tops, 
and in the heights of perpetual frost. Snow, neve and 
glaciers occurring in canons, draws and in folds and 
basins of older and u})lifted strata. 

3. The ever melting snow and ice at the deep bot¬ 
toms of these, form perpetual streams of running 
waters and underflows. 

4. The same as do the mountain ponds and lakes 



Irrigation and Petroleum. It) 

below the frost line, as so many natural reservoirs in 
and on the earth, and generally near enougli to the 
parched, arid and tliirsty fields of the great plains 
regions below, to be utilized for the purposes of irriga 
tion, when tapped and conducted to these fields. 

■ ^ THE SUFFICIENCY OF NATURAL WATER SUPPLY. 

Sec. 2. — 1. The natural water supply for all irriga¬ 
tion and other purposes on land, has its origin and 
source, ^first, in evaporation; second, mist and clouds; 
and third, in measurable precipitation. 

2. Evaporation is chiefly produced from the heat of 

the sun falling upon the water and moist land surface 
of the earth; with effects in proportion nearly corres¬ 
ponding, to the area of any given surface; second, 

to the relative directness with which the sun’s rays 
impinge. 

3. Third, the greater or less density of the pure 
air. The greater density being near the sea levels; 
the least density at the highest mountain summits. 

4. Fourth, mists and clouds are only lifted and. 
carried upward by air that has a greater weight, and 
hence density, at the time and place where evaporated 
and lifted, than that of the heated and evaporated 
vapors. 

5. Fifth, When mists and clouds rise to heights 
where the air is so'attenuate as to be less dense than 
the vaporic mists and clouds it can rise no higher. 

6. Sixth. Even the most powerful rays of the . 
sun lose their main force in the upper strata of the air 
for the want of elements and density to act upon, in so 
very attenuated and ethereal material, which for this 
cause, ever marks a perpetual frost line at given 
heights, and in a certain stratum of high air, which is 
therefore ahoays cold. 

7. Precipitation will ahoays begin where the air 
reached by mist and clouds shall be either too attenuated 


20 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 

for its support, or too cold to continue in vapor, the 
water of which these were originally formed. 

8. Even the air, which has also been expanded by 
heat, sufficient to permit the water to mingle in it, as 
misty vapor while warm, when cold contracts, con¬ 
denses and refuses to longer support the condensed and 
liquid water, permitted to mingle with it, while in a 
gaseous fluid, so then precipitation must begin, in the 
form of rain, hail and snow, in the upper cold and thin 
air. 

9. So in the temperate zones at the heights of 
about 10,000 to 11,000 feet, all the water carried to 
these heights must be })recipitated upon the lands as 
rain, hail or snow water. 

10. And while there is nearly three-fourths of the 
earth’s surface covered by water, tliere should be near¬ 
ly three times the evaporation rising from the oceans 
and seas to that of one from the land. 

11. The wixds move the clouds over the land and 
seas, or waters in the same way, and in quantities 
equal to the difference in the area of land and water, 
the land receiving as much more water than that which 
it gives off in vapor, as its area is less than that of the 
water surface. 

12. There is but little to vary or check the wind 
and cloud in their movements over the oceans and seas, 
while there are on land mountain ranges and peaks so 
liigh and cold that clouds never kiss their summits— 
while just below these extremes all vapor may be left 
in ice and snow. 

THE NATURAL WATER SUPPLY. 

Sec. 3.—1. All the water now upon the land and 
all in and on the earth has come to it at first by pre¬ 
cipitation; and this precipitation must have been equal 
to AT.L the pure water contained in all the ponds, lakes, 
running streams, snows, ice, glaciers, and neves, and 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 21 

all in the soil, sands and underflows and reservoirs in 
the earth. 

2. And it will not be easy to controvert the state¬ 
ment of Judge Emery, that ‘‘the Almighty does send 
rain enough from Heaven, if we will take care of it, 
to raise a crop all over the country from the Missouri 
River to the Pacific coast.” 

3. “ In the matter of rainfall^ data obtained from 
official publications show that the (great plains) regions 
under consideration embraced between the 97 and 
104*^ meridians, receive an annual precipitation of 
18.84 inches. This average is doubtless more than 
that maintained through the whole area.” 

4. “In 1889, it was reported of this region by 
General Greely, chief of the United States signal office^ 
that an annual rainfall of fifteen inches, if properly 
distributed, is sufficient for successful agriculture upon 
certain lines without the aid of irrigation. Seventy- 
five per cent of this fall of rain comes between April 
1st and October 1st, which is equal to 14-^-^®^ inches 
during the growing season, and gives an annual aver¬ 
age of 28^^ inches.”— {Judge Gregory of Kan.^ 

Rainfall in Northwest Nebraska is 13 inches, in 
Southeast Nebraska 32 inches, in Louisiana 62 inches. 

WATER STORAGE FOR THE PLAINS. 

Sec. 4.—1. Under this title in the Fremont Tribune 
of May 11, 1894, “It is stated that « system q/ irriga¬ 
tion comprises artificial lakes, reservoirs, dams and 
ponds.” 

2. “A Kansas authority on the subject of Irriga¬ 
tion for the plains, has the following to say in the 
Irrigation Farmer.’’'’ 

.“Our water supplies are of four kinds. 

1st, The running waters in the rivers and streams. 

2d, The underflow waters of the valleys. 

3d, The sheet waters in the plains grit, and lastly^ 

4th, The storm or surplus waters.” 


22 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 

3. All these sources of natural water supply can be 
and should be utilized by first capturing and turning 
them into reservoirs and storing them for irrigation, 
during the growing seasons of crops, in cases when and 
where they are not held and stored in natural reser¬ 
voirs. Of these natural reservoirs there are three 
general systems. 1st, The snow and ice in heights 
above the perpetual frost line. 2d, The ponds and 
basins, filled as lakes, above the land to be irrigated, 
but where they remain unfrozen during the crop grow¬ 
ing season. 

4, The under-flow of stored waters in porous 
strata forming bends, basins, and reservoirs, w^hich 
may be reached and brought to the surface by means 
of artesian wells, pumps, pipings, basin excavations and 
ditches, and by underground tunnels, or by one or 
more of these methods combined. 

THE HIGH MOUNTAIN PERPETUAL SNOW. 

Sec. 5.—1. “ In Oregon there is an annual rainfall 

of 40 inches. It comes in the winter mostly and must 
be stored in the soil,” or in the snow and ice among the 
mountains, “for summer use when it is needed for irri¬ 
gation.”—(Z>. IL Stearns, Portland, Ore.) 

2. Let us accept the foregoing facts as given by 
those whose opportunities, observations, scientific 
training and general knowledge have been such as to 
qualify them to speak with authority. 

3. We then must admit that taking all the precipi¬ 
tation which annually falls upon the 542,000,000 acres 
of arid and semi-arid lands within the United States, 
and upon and among the perpetually snow capped 
mountains and on the plains below these, but above 
the arid lands, is sufficient to irrigate all the good soil 
of these millions of acres. 

4. All these waters may be utilized for irrigation 
by means and methods familiarly known to the expert 
irrigation engineer. 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 


23 


THE RUNING WATERS. 

Sec. 6.—1. As we have already observed, all the 
many streams of ruiiiiing waters have their origin in the 
natural precipitation, which falling in rain or as snow 
and hail, melt and beginning to run into some porous 
stratum, to form underflow, or the source of springs, 
and little rills, brooks, creeks and rivers of little and 
of great flows of water, as one after another of the 
smaller unite and flow on to the ocean. 

2. In the spring and suniiner seasons, the mountain 
snows and ice attacked by the strong and vertical sun’s 
rays, sometimes melt very rapidly and cause great 
floods; so, also do great and unusual rainfalls and 
waterspouts. At such times and localities the running 
streams rise, overflow their bank, and a very great part 
of the waters of the annual precipitation is lost, which 
with wing and catch-dams, ditches, canals, and reser¬ 
voirs might be saved and stored, to be utilized for 
irrigation, in addition to all the ordinary flows of these 
running streams, and the waters naturally stored in 
lakes and pools, by a method well known to irrigation 
engineers. 

UNDERFLOW AND SUBTERRANEAN WATERS. 

Sec. 7.— 1 . Iq nearly all parts of the great plain 
regions where irrigation is most needed, there will be 
found at a depth of from three to three hundred feet, 
more or less, below the surface, the water bearing 
stratum, and in the middle or near the base of the geo¬ 
logical cenezoic system, a stratum of coarse sand, 
gravel, cobble stones or pebbles, small bowlders or 
larger bowlders, as one passes from the Missouri and 
gradually rising across the ])lains and then up into the 
hio-her canons and basins in the mountains. This 
stratum will be found the finest at the Missouri and the 
Mississippi rivers and increasing in its coarseness in the 
order above stated, except in certain depressions where 


24 Irrigation and Petroleum. 

cenezoic waters stood, or the lower cenezoic beds have 

been covered by psychozoic beds. 

2. The statement “that the creative genius of man 
will be able to find means and methods to utilize this 
great underflow for irrigation.” In speaking of this 
great water-bearing stratum, Judge Gregory calls it: 

3. “An Immense Reservoir,” and says “ that it 
has a depth in one place where tested by a well sunk 
320 feet and the sheet of water there has been traced 
out to a breadth exceeding one hundred miles. And 
similar accumulations in varied quantities have been 
noted at other points.” 


CHAPTER VII. 


These great sources of water supply may be utilized 
by many known methods. 

FIRST. 

BY TUNNELING INTO THE MOUNTAIN SLOPES. 

Section 1. — 1. “The tunnels for irrigation in Cal¬ 
ifornia were dug under the streams, and also under the 
Cienega lands scattered along the slopes of the valleys 
near the mountains, in search of other and greater 
underflow waters, and these plans were more or less 
successful, but still more water was needed.”— {Joseph 
J'arvis, liiverside, Cal.) 

2. And more water might have been found by well 
directed operations by an expert geologist. 

SECOND. 

BY SUBTERRANEAN PIPING AND AQUEDUCTS. 

Sec. 2.—1. Where the underflow stratum is cov¬ 
ered by consolidated rocks, an aqueduct may be exca¬ 
vated from the water supply to the upper margin of 
the land to be irrigated having a fall from the point of 
supply to the fields to be irrigated of not less than 




25 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 

about one foot per mile, and of sufficient size and flow 
to furnish the requisite amount of water to fully irrigate 
the land at all times when needed. 

2. An open ditch or canal will answer the same 
purpose, where ever it may be most economical. 

3. But in many cases where the water must be car¬ 
ried through and upon sandy and porous soil from the 
natural or artiflcial reservoir, to the land to be irrigated 
it may often be found most economical to conduct the 
water through hard burned clay piping, such as vitri- 
fled sewer pipe. 

4. Such sewer pipes are in use for conducting water 
one and one-half miles, from a natural reservoir in the 
form of a pond or small lake to, and through the sys¬ 
tem of sewerage adopted in this city of Fremont, Ne¬ 
braska, and it furnishes an abundance and continuous 
flow of water for this purpose. The lake is a small 
pond in the valley of the Platte River, and it has no 
apparent inlet, but it is kept fllled by the natural 
underflow into it, at the same time giving sufficient 
out-flow for the above purposes. 

WATER SUPPLY, HEAD AND SIZE OF CANALS. 

Sec. 3—1. The grade and fall of the bottoms of 
natural running streams are so variable that it will 
always be necessary for the irrigation engineer to flrst 
determine the volume and velocity of the water current 
to know the capacity of the stream for the needed 
supply. 

2. The more rapid the current of a stream, with 
any given sectional area of the flowing water, the 
greater will be the quantity of water delivered wdthin 
a given time, or per second, as it is usually stated. 

Sec. 4.—1. Having a Sufficient Known supply 
of water in reserve to draw from, the grade being first 
determined, over which a ditch or canal must pass from 
the source of supply, to the highest margin of the land 
to be irrigated, and the number of acres, and the num- 


26 Irrigation and Petroleum. 

ber of inches per acre to be applied at given intermit¬ 
ting periods, for the growing seasons of the crops to 
be irrigated; the expert irrigation engineer is prepared 
to calculate and estimate and determine the width and 
depths of the canal that will deliver a sufficient quan¬ 
tity of water, as it may be required for full irrigation 
of the land. 

2. The volume of water that any given size of 
canal will deliver, will dejjend upon, not only the 
number of feet which it shall fall per mile, but also 
the fact that a large and deep flow of water over the 
same grade and kind of material, of the bottoms and 
slopes of the canal, will be greater in proportion to the 
size of the area of the section of the flow than it will 
be in a smaller canal, because of the greater propor¬ 
tional friction on the slopes and bottom of the smaller 
canal than that on the wider and deeper water in the 
larger canal. The excess of proportional friction im¬ 
pedes the velocity of the current more in the small 
canal and ditch than in the larger. 

3. Hence the irrigation engineer will, in his esti¬ 
mates, make the necessary allowance for the usual fric¬ 
tion of the currents on the slopes and bottoms of 
ditches and canals, as well as upon aqueducts and 
pipings. 


CHAPTER VIII. 


IRRIGATION ENGINEERING. 

'WASTE WEIRS. 

Section 1.—1. From all Reservoirs, wing-dams, 
and other dams, ditches and canals, wherever it is 
probable or possible that the inflowing waters may at 
any time exceed the discharge, so as to overflow the 
embankments, there must be constructed at points 





21 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 

where the water overflow may discharge itself without 
injury to the einbaiikmeiit, waste-weirs in sufficient 
numbers and of sufficient width and depth to discharge 
all surplus water from the system. 

EXPLORATIONS FOR A WATER SUPPLY. 

Sec. 2.—1. None but expert irrigation or civil 
engineers should be employed in the location and con¬ 
struction of any large system of irrigation. 

2. There is an American Society of Irrigation 
Engineers, which in 1893 was officered as follows: 
James D. Schuyler, Chairman, of California; Fred L. 
Alles, Secretary, Cal.; J. W. Gregory, Assistant Sec- 
retaiy, Garden City, Kan.; L. A. Hicks, Assistant 
Secretary, Yurna, Ariz. 

3. In any county in this country having an expert 
civil engineer and county surveyor, where irrigation 
works may be needed, these may be safely employed 
to locate and oversee the construction of a system, if 
he has this little work and studies and observes its 
suggestions. 

4. But to utilize all the arid and seini-arid lands in 
the United States or in any other country, there should 
be a chief engineer in charge, at the capital city, to so 
direct and supervise a general system, that all the 
water supply passing from one state to another might 
never be so diverted, controlled or wasted, that it 
would not be used to irrigate every acre that it could 
possibly be made to irrigate. 

5. And this chief engineer should, under provisions 
of law and standing rules, be empowered and directed 
to see that each owner and occupant of any acre of 
land to be irrigated, should not be deprived of his just 
and equitable share of the water of the system of irri¬ 
gation from which he was at the time entitled to draw 
the water. 

THE LOCAL WATER SUPPLY. 

4.—1. To establish any local system of irriga- 


28 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 

tion, to irrigate a farm or region of arid lands, the 
first 2 ^rohlem for the irrigation engineer is to discover 
the nearest and most accessible and available water 
supply, in sufficient quantities for the proposed system, 
when such water supply has been found: 

2. The second problem will be to determine upon 
one of the various methods known to irrigation engi¬ 
neers to reach, secure, divert and conduct the water 
from its natural course to the land to be irrigated- 
The irrigation engineer finds that history, experience 
and observation have given him many practical object 
lessons in the science of irrigation. 

Sec. 5. — 1. “Great streams, the recovery of vast 
quantities of Phieatic waters, the construction of myr¬ 
iads of ditches, canals, locks, dams, aqueducts, tunnels, 
pumps, pipings, tanks, reservoirs and artesian wells. 

2. All these, or at least one or more of them will 
require the careful and considerate skill of the practical 
irrigation engineer, the geological stratagraphist and 
chemist to discover the best and most economic meth¬ 
ods and effective application of the water, manures and 
materials in each, to obtain the very best results, which 
may include the use of artesian flows of water,” gas, 
petroleum and even coal discovered in drilling deep 
wells, “as powers for pumping and raising underflow 
water, and generating electric forces.”— [Gregory.) 

3. Even sunlight and heat has been pro])osed as a 
force and power for pumping and an engine has been 
invented and put into use by Dr. C. W. Allingham, of 
California, which he thinks may be suffitfient to pump 
irrigation water by the sun’s light and heat. 

THE ANNUAL PRECIPITATION AS A SUPPLY. 

Sec. 6 .— 1. The irrigation engineer must know or 
measure the annual precipitation which may fall upon 
the higher water-sheds from which it may be collected 
into reservoirs and there stored, far enough above the 
lands to be irrigated, during the crop growing season. 


29 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 

so that the water then may be conducted by ditches or 
otherwise, upon the land proposed to be irrigated. 

Sec. 7.—1. The Geologist must determine the prob¬ 
abilities of obtaining underflow water, and of discov¬ 
ering artesian water; and the Chemist must determine 
the chemical composition of artesian flows, and waters 
to be used upon soil to be irrigated; which the chemist 
must also analyze, so that the kind of fertilizer most 
needed to enrich the soil, as food for the plants pro¬ 
posed to be grown on the land, to get the best results, 
may be determined upon. 

DAM AND BASIN METHODS. 

Sec. 8.—1. D. H. Stearns, of Portland, Oregon, 
has said, “That all that is necessary in Oregon is to 
run a ‘ stop ’ around the head of and near a ‘ draw ’ 
which carries away a considerable quantity of storm 
water, being careful not to wholly enclose the channel 
of the supply draw, and then run a short ditch from 
the stop dam to the upper side of the field to be irri¬ 
gated. That side will need no ‘ stop ’ unless there is a 
higher level to be covered. 

2. Then watch the water that it does not rise high 
enough to overflow and break the stop before it is 
turned back into its natural channel. I have seen 
thousands of places in the valleys of the Platte, Loup, 
and Elkhorn rivers, where acres could be irrigated 
fully for a single crop, in this way, at an expense of 
ten cents per acre. 

3. With the ravines in Nebraska and the surplus 
amount of storm water, they could carry off, there is 
no necessity for other reservoirs for the cultivation of 
the soil.” 

THE BASIN METHODS. 

Sec. 9.—1. The water supply may come from the 
head of a ravine dammed, or from a running stream 
through a wing-dam or other forms of basins. 

2. L. M. Woodbridge, delegate in the International 


30 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 

Irrigation Congress at Los Angeles, 1893, said that: 

First: “In basins for orchard irrigation, the whole 
ground should be covered by a double furrow running 
down between every alternate row of trees large 
enough to carry fifteen to fifty inches of water taken 
from the liead ditch, and by the attendant farmer 
caused to fill basin after basin between the rows until 
the work of the day is completed. lie then repeats 
the same operation between the other alternate rows 
of trees. 

3. Second: A Second AletJiod., by which the 
water is run into the first basin until it is filled, when 
a portion of its lower side is broken down, so as to let 
the water fill the next hasin^ and so on until the work 
of the day has been completed. 

4. Third: When oidy one part of the land is to 
be irrigated, the basins will only be made within such 
part. 

5. Fourth: A 3Iodern Method cous\sXs in having 
the head ditches at the highest side of the (held or) 
orchard, and running the water down through small 
furrows to the lower end of the rows or side of the 
grounds to be irrigated; this is an easy and convenient 
method,” and for various crops. 

GRADES FOR IRRIGATION DITCHES. 

Sec. 10.—1. To locate, and grade irrigation ditches 
and canals will require the most careful and best ef¬ 
forts of the expert irrigation engineer, so as to safely 
lead the water from its natural su})ply at the head of 
the ditch to the grounds to be irrigated. 

2. The grade must be regularlv maintained and 
made not to fall much less than at the rate of one foot 
per mile, but it may fall more rapidly where the head 
is of sufficient heights, provided the ditch passes 
through materials M'ell consolidated, or if it be made 
of solid masonry. 

3. In extending the length of a ditch or canal for 


31 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 

several miles, it will generally be found most eco¬ 
nomical to locate it so that its grade will be found 
meandering along the slopes of bluffs, hills or moun¬ 
tains. And in such cases, any material defect of grade 
might prove fafal to the utility of that whole system. 

4. To obtain such accurate grade may require the 
aqueduct to pass through, under, and over, rivers, 
and divides, canons and currents, by means of tunnels, 
culverts, building aqueducts, sometimes made of solid 
masonry, will require a most careful and expert engi¬ 
neer. 

IRKI(4ATI0N IN EAST INDIA. 

Section 11. — 1. The most substantial structures 
and methods have been in use in India and Asia for 
thousands of years to irrigate arid wastes. 

2. “ The Solani Aqueduct of the Ganges Canal 
is 750 feet in length, carried upon fifteen arches of 
solid masonry, and with approaches 900 feet long. 
The foundations are 250 feet wide, sunk 20 feet below 
the bottom of the river. 

3. The width of the water channel, carried upon 
these massive foundations and arches, are 164 feet be¬ 
tween the inner faces of the walls, and the water pass¬ 
ing through ten feet deep. The Ganges branch canals 
have each over 3,000 miles in length.” 

“THE rUTRI TORRENT.” 

4. “The Putri Torrent is a canal with a fall of 25 
feet per mile, and is carried on a superpassage 296 feet 
wide, about 14 feet deep and near 450 feet long. 

5. Along this canal the waters are hurled in waves 
from three to four feet high, lashing the sides of its 
staunch walls, which hold them secure in their mad 
race. 

6. And the training works leading this water tor¬ 
rent to the superpassage, are similar massive "iid costly 
structures.” 

7. These irrigation works are cliaracteristic of many 


S2 Irrigation and Petroleum. 

others for like purposes, of India’s English public 
works. 

8. These artificial water channels of the Great Tor¬ 
rent., are constructed to carry a current 200 feet wide 
and ten feet deep, both above and below the surface in 
the canal, by aqueducts, some times over, then under 
and through other torrents."''' 

NARORA. 

9. Another great India public irrigation work are 
the weirs diverting the waters from the Ganges at 
Narora. This weir is 3,800 feet long, resting upon a 
concrete floor 3 feet thick, carried on a block of S68 wells 
sunk from 20 to 32 feet below the bed of the river. Its 
vrest feet feet below water level; but the head 
can be raised 10 feet higher by means of shutters. 

10. There are 30 openings 1 feet wide in the off-lake, 
and Jp2 sluices 7^ feet wide on the left side. 

Section 12.—1. The maximum capacity of the 
canal in the first 26 miles, is about 5,100 cubic feet per 
second. 

2. The width 216 feet, and the depth 10 feet ^ “The 
extraordinary solidity of the Dams and Aqueducts in 
India will be appreciated when it is made known to 
what extent the rivers sometimes are flooded. 

THE ERRITI. 

3. This river has varied from low to high-water 
marks more than 50 feet, flooding houses and villages. 
And in 1881 discharging 220,000 cubic feet of water 
per second. 

Section 13.—1. Immense floods come down the 
Great river in June and July; and if it will not pay to 
make reservoirs and canals to conduct and store all the 
water of such great floods, then provisions must be 
made in the way of waste-weirs to pass on the surplus 
waters safely. 

2. But it is plain that no private enterprise could 
attempt such gigantic irrigation works. 


33 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 

Section 14.—1. The Headworks of irrigation 
canals in India are generally located at the highest 
possible point of the water supply, and continued as far 
as jyossible along the highest divides and slopes permis¬ 
sible by the local topography.”— Extract from a Paper 
by Geo. Anderson^ M. C. E. of London, and Chief 
Engineer, Malabar District, India., and Delegate to the 
International Irrigation Congress, at Los Angles, Cal ., 
Oct. 10th, 1893. 

water distribution on land. 

Section 15. — 1. The irrigator having discovered 
and secured a sufficient water supply for a given irriga¬ 
tion district, he will adopt and construct such a system 
of connections and distribution of the water upon the 
land to be irrigated as science, experience and practice 
shall have pointed out, as most economical and profita¬ 
ble. Among the many varied systems let us note some 
in use. 

First : Tank systems; these are formed of wood, 
iron, earth and rock. 

the great INDIA TANK SYSTEM. 

Section 16.—1. This tank system is a most import¬ 
ant factor in the irrigation of the arid lands of India. 

2. By this system private parties engage in the 
forming of reservoirs by embankments, in lengths of 
from 80 rods to one, two and even three miles long; 
with an inner slope of 1 to 3, to hold water from.6 to 
10 feet deep at the toe and deepest part of the dam; 
and sufficient to irrigate one crop. 

3. Evaporation in some locations in India carries 
off from 50 to 70 inches; to prevent this Lotus plants 
with broad floating leaves are planted,” as in this 
country water lillies might be used. 

4. One such tank in Puniari 30 miles long.^ 
another m Veranum 12 miles long and its waters cover* 
ing 36 square miles and yielding the proprietors an an* 
nual revenue of $55,000. 


34 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 

5. The larger and deeper tank (or dam)- where Jrom 
30 to 50 feet high., is made of earth, hut the inner 
slopes are formed with stone revetting and sloping 
from 22J ^ to 45 degrees from water level. 

Sp:c'iton 17. — 1. In the Province of the Madras 
Presidency there are 60,000 of these tanks, dams or 
reservoirs of various sizes. 

2. They, (like the Johnstown dam) are considered 
dangerous where they too often occur along any small 
ravine.” 

3. Mr. Anderson, the authority for the above, fur¬ 
ther says: “That he once investigated a catchment 
basin containing 350 shallow tanks within a space of 
110 square miles.” 

4. “ The 31ud\ik Tank which was built in the 15th 
century, A. D. covered 40 square miles, and was 110 
feet high at the point where the dam or tank crossed 
the ravine bottom, with the base of the tank 1000 feet 
thick. 

5. An-Mais\ire T'ank is 117 feet high, 225 feet long 
at the base and only 375 feet wide or thick at the base. 

6. The slojies of this country containing these 
tanks, are from 10 to 20 feet fall per mile, and from 
this the grade rising at a rate of from 60 to 80 feet per 
mile. 

7. The Medium Class of Dams have varied 
heights and batter from 18 feet in breadth at base, to 
12 feet at the top, and down to 60 feet at base, the 
inner slopes are revetted MHth rough stone, declining 
as 2 to 1 away. The revetting from 1^ to 5 feet thick; 
the vents are 3 x 3 feet, and the waste-weirs from 30 
to 120 feet wide, as were shown in sections. 

8. The vent shapes varied as barrel shapes or as 
polygons and rectangular holes. These vents or 
waste-weirs lead off from the lowest points in the 
tanks.” 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 


35 


THE INLET SYSTEM. 

Sec. 18.-—1. There are different systems for pass¬ 
ing the su])ply waters within the embankments of 
canals and dams. The inlet may be a passage through 
the embankment, or a flume at the source of supply. 
The gate or inlet may be three feet high or six feet 
square, and with the outlets, having plug-holes and 
gibbed stone jilugs to close these orifices, having also 
escape-weirs of from one to four for each tank of 30 
to 300 feet wide made of the largest stones used 
about the dam, and to carry water from three to nine 
feet deep. 

2. Dam Stones, so called, three to four feet high, 
are used to dam the water so as to give about two feet 
deeper water. 

3. Wing-Dam Walls of from three to six feet high 
for covering and afterwards diverging the water from 
tail races and waste weirs, over horizontal or sloping 
bottoms for long distances. 

4. A loioer stone wall is sometimes placed across the 
tail, but at some considerable distance from the dam, 
to intercept some of the escape water which is, or may 
be taken off by a channel. 

5. In the India Madras it has been estimated that 
there are 30,000 miles of tank embankment, and over 
300,000 separate masonry w’orks used for irrigation 
purposes, w'hich yield to the provincial government 
$'7,250,000 per annum in revenue.”— {^George Anderson, 
Delegate I I C ., los Angeles, 1893, and Indians Irri¬ 
gation Engineer.') 


CHAPTER IX. 

MANY OLD AND NEW IRRIGATION METHODS. 

Section 1.—1. Both old and new irrigation meth¬ 
ods have been successfully tried and used in the United 



36 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 

States in many localities along the Pacific slope, in the 
arid and seini-arid regions of the great plains, among 
the peaks and slopes of the mountains. 

2. Mayor Dillon., of Sheridan, has asked, “What 
better proof does anyone want that will silence skep¬ 
tics, than that Sheridan wheat, raised under irrigation 
ditches took first premium at the World’s Fair over all 
competition? Irrigation is a great success in Wyom¬ 
ing, and we have set the i)ace.” 

3. Mr. L. I. Simynons^ of Harrison, Nebraska, 
President of the Northwestern Nebraska Irrigation 
Association said, “Wlierever irrigation has been tried 
in our country, it has increased the products. 

4. A man who ])uts even a few acres under ditch is 
sure of a living. One friend of mine wlio has three 
acres under ditch, got a yield of $500 an acre last 
year ” (in 1893.) 

“ACRE FARMI.NG.” 

Sec. 2. — 1. In a letter from CJdnkiang., China., 
dated May, 1894, Frank G. Carpenter, says: “A 
large part of the farming of this region is done by irri¬ 
gation, and the water rights of the Chmese are as full 
of coinplications as those of Colorado —still it is won¬ 
derful how well they work, and how much they get off 
the land. Three a'ojjs a year is by no means mrcoin- 
mon. There are thoiisaiids of holdings in China lohich 
are less than an acre, and some are even as small as the 
tenth of an acre. It is estimated that an acre of land 
will, in the better parts of the Empire, siqyport a /am- 
iYy and a volume could be written on Chinese 

agriculture. 

2. The use of fertilizers is universal; everything is 
saved and sold for fertilizi ng,” etc. 

“In the 8th century, the Chinese engineer Kublal 
Hahn, laid out and superintended the building of the 
Grand Cayial over 1000 miles long., which crosses the 
Yangtse Chinhiang, 


57 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 

3. Matt Douglas, of Ogalalla, Neb., has said that 
“ In our valley we have got the water flow in sufticient 
quantity to irrigate the entire Platte Valley from the 
Wyoming line to the confluence of the South and 
North branches of the Platte river. 

4. There are now in Scotts Bluff county 450 miles 
of irrigation ditches, and in Cheyenne county there are 
over 200 miles of ditches. The test has proven mar¬ 
velous. 

5. The Belmont ditch is over twenty miles in 
length, and it irrigates over 15,000 acres, and has 
always proved successful since the day it was placed in 
operation.” 

6. A, L. King, of Hitchcock county. Neb., has 
said: “that the Culbertson irrigation canal recently 
built from Palisades to Culbertson will be twenty-seven 
miles in length when the extension to Blockwood creek 
is complete. 

7. It irrigates 36,000 acres, and has a flow of 300 
cubic feet per second. It has ten flumes, of which 
one is a quarter of a mile in length; these flumes are 
twenty-eight feet high, and the canal works success¬ 
fully.” 

IRRIGATION IN CUSTER. 

8. Omaha World-Herald, January 26, 1895.—“The 
Lillian precinct irrigation ditch on the south side of 
the Middle Loup river, when completed, will be twenty- 
flve miles long, sixteen feet wide on the bottom and 
will water 11,000 acres. It was commenced September 
28, 1894, and nine miles have been completed. Over 
100,000 yards of earth have been moved to date, and 
over fifty teams are now at work. 

9. The Middle Loup irrigation ditch on the north 
side of Middle Loup river, when completed, will be 
forty miles long and will water 30,000 acres of land. 
It is twenty-four feet wide and four and a half feet 
deep, has about fifteen miles completed and about 
seventy-five teams now at work grading. 


38 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 

10. The Lahorn ditch, four miles long, eight feet 
wide, was commenced in October, 1894, is now finished 
and water running in it. The latter is taken from 
Victoria creek, a tributary of the Middle Loup, and 
will water about 2,000 acres. 

11. The McGraw ditch, taken from Victoria creek, 
is two miles long, was commenced in June, 1894, is six 
feet wide and was finished in time to water about 5,000, 
acres before it froze up; it will water about 1,500 acres 
next summer. 

12. In Loup county along the North Loup on the 
north side of the river is the Newton irrigation canal. 
It will be, when finished, eighteen miles long, will 
water 7,000 acres of land, will be fourteen feet on the 
bottom and four feet deep. They are working a New 
Era grader and about twenty teams, have five miles 
finished, and are in a fair way to have their ditch com¬ 
pleted by June, 1895. There are about ten or twelve 
other ditches along the Loup river that are well under 
way and the farmers are working hard every day trying 
to get them done for next year’s crop.” 

DAMS AND RESERVOIRS. 

Sec. 3.—1. Stops, dams, dikes and reservoirs have 
been and may be successfully built near the heads of 
draws and ravines to stop, catch and save all that it is 
possible to save, of the waters from the higher levels 
of precipitation, and the melting of mountain snows. 

2. The Russian Government has under irrigation 
200,000 hectare—494,200 acres—the water supply for 
which comes through artificial canals and reservoirs, at 

^ ’ u< 

a cost to the land owner of from |16 to $3.7 per hectare 
-—$2.47 to $5 per acre. Ditching on the great Amer 
plains $1.50 to $2.50 per acre; cost of pumping plant 
$25 to $200 per acre. 

3. “ Russia has for irrigation and pisciculture, con¬ 
structed dams with derivation canals 790 feet long in 
the Bobja valley, which are 25 feet high, and in other 


39 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 
localities of various heights.”—(Count Comodzisky, 
delegate to International Irrigation Congress, 1893.) 

4. “ With irrigation and intelligent application of 
water and cultivation the right amount of vrater can be 
had; because the supply of water is always under ab¬ 
solute control by the owner. 

5. And there is enough rainfall and enough storage 
capacity, and enough capital and American energy to 
furnish a good water right to every acre of arable and 
irrigable land in this end of (California), and in every 
other part of the United States, ‘‘and the child is now 
living who will see as many people in arid parts of 
California, and the other states, as there are acres of 
arid irrigable and tillable lands.”—(Joseph Jarvis, 
Riverside, Cal.) 

WATER SUPPLY FROM WELLS. 

Sec. 4.—1. Where the arid and senii-arid tillable 
land cannot readily be connected by ditch with running 
streams or lakes; and where such connection may be 
practicable, it will often be found, that the underflow 
which may be reached by wells, will afford the most 
economical water supply in many localities for irriga¬ 
tion. 

WATER ELEVATOR. 

2. And in nearly every part of the arid and semi 
arid regions of the great plains; the underflow waters 
will be found to be abundant for all irrigation purposes; 
and may be obtained through wells either by windmill, 
animal, water or electric power pumping machinery; 
or frequently from spouting artesian wells. 

3. Judge Gregory of Kansas, has said that “Within 
five minutes walk of his own home there lives a man 
who has for three years last past supported his family 
of seven persons upon four acres of ground, which he 
irrigated by means of a pump and windmill, and they 
lived in a condition of comfort, even luxury, compared 


40 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 

with families living upon a half section of their own 
land a few miles distant,” and he thinks that “the 
maximum of land to the head of a family should not 
exceed twenty acres in the irrigation regions.” 

THE WATER SUPPLY IN THE ARID REGIONS. 

Sec. 5.—1. For the purpose of irrigation within 
the Great Plains regions, where so much arid and 
serai-arid lands occur, the region does not wholly de¬ 
pend upon the rainfall within these regions. But the 
water supply may come from the running streams, and 
largely from the underflows which have their original 
sources in the higher lands and mountains where 
there is an estimated precipitation of about forty inches 
per annum, and that of “ the average of annual precip¬ 
itation upon the plains, nearly 19 inches. 

2. Three-fourths of which is in the growing months. 
In the mountains the precipitation is still greater,” as 
has been shown .—{Judge Gregory.) 

AMOUNT OF WATER REQUIRED PER ACRE FOR CROPS. 

Sec. 6.—1. During the growing season of crops, 
they require from local rainfall or by irrigation, or 
from both, from twelve to twenty inches, or as an 
average about fifteen inches of water, to be applied 
over each acre in dejith, to secure the best results for 
the three to five first years of irrigation and cultivation. 

2. After which, the ground having become satu¬ 
rated with water, it will require much less water to 
secure good results. 

COST OF WATER SUPPLY FOR IRRIGATION. 

Sec. 7.—1. It has been found from actual practice, 
that it costs for irrigation works where constructed by 
governments as public works, under different difficul¬ 
ties, from three to not exceeding sixteen dollars per 
acre to irrigate arid lands. This includes the cost 
where tlie water has been pumped or carried through 
safe canals and aqueducts, constructed in many parts 


41 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 

of solid masonry, from ten to one hundred miles, from 
running streams, lakes, and artificial reservoirs. Hence, 
no private corporation or person should be allowed to 
charge more than a rate equal to a low interest and 
cost of repairs of such irrigation system for water 
rights. 

2. A farmer in Jefferson County, Colorado, has a 
windmill irrigation plant which cost him |150 and with 
which he irrigates seven acres of land. It is consid¬ 
ered the cheapest ’■water supply that can be had for irri¬ 
gation purposes. 

GREAT PLAINS UNDERFLOW WATER SUPPLY. 

Sec. 8.—1. The geologist finds that at the closing 
upheavals of the Mesozoic Age, the greatest part of 
North America lying west of the Mississippi River, and 
that now, known as the Great Plains Region, was 
lifted out from under the Mesozoic, and later Ceiiezoic 
oceans. 

2. The Rocky, and other continental mountain 
regions coming up first and in earlier geological ages, 
the higher elevations rising fastest; the lower at the 
same time, rising slower or subsiding. 

3. While the waters of the older Mesozoic and 
later oceans were being emptied and extinguished by 
being rolled away over the great plains, then very 
little broken or bent, but receiving, first the coarser 
and then the finer sediments carried along by the deep 
and rapidly moving oceans of waters, until these found 
a resting ])lace in the present lakes, seas, and oceans. 
The coarse fragmental rocks from the mountains being 
laid down nearest the mountains, in the more rapid 
moving waters, and as the waters moved slower and 
farther away, they laid down finer and finer silts. 

4. The result of tliese movements, was to leave 
under nearly all the great plains regions, a stratum of 
bowlders, cobble-stone, pebbles, gravel, coarse and 
tiner sands, which now form a porous and water bear- 


42 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 
iiig reservoir. Over this reservoir, near the Missouri 
and Mississippi rivers, vve find the loess deposited, 
composed of clay, sand and vegetable mould, mostly; 
while nearer the mountains, clay, sands and volcanic 
ejectments cover the surface in spots, and of greater 
or less area. 

5. The water stratum over a very large proportion 
of the whole area of the great plains, may be reached 
by wells, and drills, within a depth of about five to 
fifteen feet in the valleys, and within one hundred 
to four hundred on the table and plateau lands. 

6. From this great reservoir in the water bearing 
stratum, the water in abundance for irrigation may be 
lifted, pumped, lead by pipings, tunnels and ditches; 
the latter having a falling grade of not exceeding one 
foot per mile, will approach the surface of the valley 
and table lands at a rate of elevation of four to 
about fifteen feet per mile, more or less, so that such 
piping and ditches will not have to be continued many 
miles to take the water from this great underground 
natural supply reservoir to the surface of lands which 
it may be desired to irrigate. 

ARTESIAN WELLS. 

Sec. 9.—1. Besides and below the great underflow 
stratum mentioned, may be found by deep borings, 
other water bearing strata, in porous rocks, lying be¬ 
tween impervious strata. Wherever a water stratum 
so confined by impervious layers of rocks can be 
reached by the driller, there may he almost certainly 
obtain an artesian flow of water, with greater or less 
gushing pressure. 

2. And “for high table-lands we must often look 
to artesian water, and should have government assist¬ 
ance, as well as laws that will allow us to take water 
from streams.”— [L. J. Simtnons, Prest. of A^-TF. 
N^eb. Irri. Association.) 

3. At the convention in Omaha, March, 1894, of 


43 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 

the Interstate Irrigation Association, on the motion of 
Mr. Carnalian, of Colorado, it was by the convention. 
Resolved^ that the government should determine by 
actual test whether or not artesian water can be ob¬ 
tained upon the great plains, and if so, to what 
extent.” 

4. Every person who has given the subject careful 
consideration knows that hundreds of artesian wells are 
now in successful use for irrigation and other water 
purposes in California, and thousands of them in other 
parts of the world. 

5. Many an artesian well has been known to send 
out their waters with such great force as to furnish a 
direct pressure power sufficient for driving machinery. 

6. We notice the following in the Eremont Daily 
Herald of March 30, 1894. 

“AN ARTESIAN BOOM.” 

“ The artesian boom is on in South Dakota, and it 
is now proposed to use well power for storing electric¬ 
ity in accumulators, with which to drive plows and 
operate reapers, mowers, hay-rakes, threshers and other 
machinery.” 

7. Joe Teaiior said, Dec. 4, 1894: “When I left 
Scotland, S. D., yesterday, there was much excitement 
over an artesian well just struck at a depth of 575 feet, 
which was sending out an inch stream of sweet, soft 
and pure water, at the rate of 5,000 barrels a day. 
Sunday night the flow increased to 11,000 barrels in 
each twenty-four hours. The people of this town have 
invested now $25,000 to secure artesian water and are 
jubilant, as this well will furnish more than enough 
water for domestic and fire purposes .”—[Omaha Daily 
World-Herald, Ajyril 12, 189Jf.) 

8. “Albert Jacox, living south of Basset, Rock 
County, Neb., has a flowing well ninety-five feet deep, 
which puts out 300 gallons per hour, through a one 
and one-quarter inch pipe. It is on a small rise, and 


44 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 

he irrigates twenty acres of garden and orchard from 
it .”—(Fremont Herald., Ang. 8, 189Jf.) 

OIL STRUCK IN WISCONSIN. 

9. “Oil was struck this morning at a depth of 200 
feet, by men boring an artesian well on the Weis dairy 
farm. The flow is large, with a mixture of water. 

10. Though the quantity of oil seems to be large, 
there can be little hope that it will last long enough 
to be of any cotnmercial value .”—(Omaha World Her¬ 
ald., Feh. i, 1895.) 


CHAPTER X. 


DEEP WELL DRILLING. TO OBTAIN ARTESIAN WATER, 
GAS AND OIL FLOAVS AVITIIIN THE ARID REGIONS 
OF THE PLAINS AND PIEDMONT DI¬ 
VISION OF THE UNITED 
STATES. 

Sec. 1.—1. Many intelligent persons and some 
geologists, Avho appear to think that there is little of 
geological interest or economic value within the vast 
arid regions of the Plains and Piedmont Division of 
our country, or within such regions of any country. 

2. The fallacious views ought to be dis})elled by the 
organization under the geological survey of a “Plains 
and Piedmont Division” and a competent geologist 
placed in charge Avith a suflicient force, means and di¬ 
rections to make thorough geological survey of not 
only the surface, outcroppings and minerals naturally 
exposed; but also by a feAV deep drillings at such local¬ 
ities as the unbroken and anticlinal and synclinal strata 
may indicate to be likely to yield most beneficial 
results. To understand correctly, as to just where these 
borings should be made the geologist should be pretty 
thoroughly acquainted Avith the history and results 
obtained by deep well drillings. 




45 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 

3. And to lead up to a general knowledge of this 
subject we will give a summary account of artesian, 
gas and oil well enterprises, under the general heads of 
Artesian Wells; Petroleum; Gas and Oil Wells. 

4. And in these connections we will speak of the 
valuable results wliich may be expected to be derived 
by the people of Nebraska and other states, included 
within a “Plains and Piedmont Geological Division” 
when so surveyed. It may be asked: 

5. Shall we expect to find silver and gold in these 
regions in sufficient quantities to pay for mining? We 
must say; the survey alone will reveal a satisfactory 
answer. But no conservative geologist will say, that 
even silver and gold mines of great value would not be 
discovered; even in Nebraska. 

6. But in this essay, we will speak of other valuable 
minerals which may reasonably be expected to be found 
here, of quite as much importance to the future pros¬ 
perity of this great region as even the discovery of sil¬ 
ver and gold mines. 

7. These discoveries, where not otherwise manifest, 
will be made so; by artesian and petroleum wells, driven 
deep into the earth. 

That the explorator, who follows this course, ac¬ 
cording to the best known methods and the experience 
of the past, will succeed, there can be no doubt. 

ARTESIAN wells. 

Sec. 2.—1. In the valleys, and for ordinary uses, 
water may usually be had from springs and shallow 
wells, at depth not much below the surface of the 
nearest creek, river or lake. 

2. But on high table lands and mountain slopes, it 
is generally necessary to dig or bore for water to con¬ 
siderable, and great depth. 

3. These deep borings frequently reach water im¬ 
mediately above the first impervious stratum; but if not 
found at this horizon, then go through the impervious 


46 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 

stratum, which at a higher level than that of the sur¬ 
face of the ground where the well is located, should be 
broken; as well as that of a porous stratum, under the 
impervious roofing stratum, the well-maker will, most 
likely, find in reaching the porous stratum, artesian 
waters rushing up to, and above the surface of the 
ground; in many cases shooting high in the air, as a 
fountain of water. 

4. But the borer will not always find such artesian 
M'aters under the first impervious stratum; yet, if the 
depths be not too great, and all the known stratified 
rocks have not been passed, the well-driller need not 
be discouraged, until all these have been passed. 

5. Where the waters from rains and snows enter 
the porous stratum at great heights above the surface 
of the ground at the well, which giving vent to the 
water, it will sometimes rise with such velocity and 
force as to be sufficient to drive machinery; and supply 
farms, towns and large cities with water as good, and 
usually better, or as well as they might have been sup¬ 
plied by long and expensive aqueducts, or by powerful 
engines. 

6 . The flow from large wells oi' from several of 
these has been found in some cases to be sufficient to 
irrigate farms and large areas of and countries, where 
by the once desert wastes have become highly product¬ 
ive and thickly populated, cities built, and now are 
occupied by peaceful and industrious people. 

THE IIISTOKY or ARTESIAN WELLS. 

Sec. 3.-— 1 . It is said that the Chinese and Egyp¬ 
tians have known how to construct artesian wells for 
thousands of years; and it is quite jirobable that they;^ 
have been used ever since Moses smote the rock in. 3 
Horeb with his rod and the water came out. 

2 . But at that time, in the lands now inhabited by 
the most civilized people, there could have been but 
little knowledge of artesian wells. 



Irrigation and Petroleum. 4!7 

3. The knowledge, through these latter countries, 
has advanced with better understanding of machinery, 
tools, and of geology. We have thus been taught to 
locate artesian wells, on benches, slopes and in valleys. 

4. And that artesian water must be obtained from a 
reservoir under the earth in a porous stratum which 
may consist of broken rocks of limestone, metamor- 
phized limestone, such as a dolomite, or a porous sand¬ 
stone, sands, gravels and bowlders. 

5. The roof and floor of such water containing res¬ 
ervoirs, may be of any kind of rock which will be im¬ 
pervious to the included w^ater, such as clays, shales, 
compact and close grained limestones, consolidated 
sandstones, or other impervious beds and layers of 
rock. 

6. There has been hundreds of artesian wells drilled 
at Vienna and other parts of Austria. 

7. dTe government geologist of Algeria, in his 
report of operations in northern Africa for 1856 and 
1857, shows that a great many artesian wells have 
been drilled at different places in the Great Sahara 
Desert, and in the Provinces of Constantine. 

8. And that the artesian waters have there been 
reached at depths varying from 1000 to 1300 feet. 

9. And from a report in 1887, it has further been 
shown that there was then not less than 75 of these ar¬ 
tesian Avells in the Sahara Desert, from which 600,000 
gallons of water flowed every hour. 

10. So that where there was but a few years ago 
nothing but burning sands driven by hot and fierce 
winds, which compelled the Nomadic tribes of Arabs 
and their camels to bury their heads in the sand to pro¬ 
tect their lives. 

11. There now are found about, and from the 
water-flows of artesian wells, thrifty villages, beauti¬ 
ful green lawns,, delicious growing tropical fruits, and 
settlements of happy, industrious and civilized Arabian 


48 


Irrigation and Petroleum, 
people, showing that artesian wells have “ made the 
desert bloom and blossom as the rose.” 

12. As the knowledge, feasibility and great bene¬ 
fits of these wells have become better knowii^ their 
numbers, and even their greater depths have increased. 

13. An artesian well at Pest, drilled 3,100 feet 
deep, yields 175 gallons per minute or 10,530 gallons 
per hour, 242,724 gallons per day. 

14. The great depth from which the water comes 
has caused it to rise with the temperature of 161 F. 

15. An artesian well drilled 4,162 feet deep, at 
Sprenburg, Prussia, is said to yield a large s'upply of 
water which is probably hotter than that at Pest. 

16. In 1798 there was one of the earlier of modern ' 
artesian wells, drilled 393 feetdeep, which yielded 5161- 
gallons of water per minute, 31,020 per hour, 744,480 
per day. 

17. Without more specific statement we will say 
that there are many such artesian wells of depth aver¬ 
aging about 340 feet in the London Basin, England, 
yielding great quantities of most excellent water, which 
is found in a reservoir of the upper Mesozoic age rocks. 

18. And it is in the rocks of this geological age 
that artesian water is found at Paris, in France, under 
the rocks known as drift. 

19. Well informed geologists knaw that in Eastern 

Nebraska in many places the Mesozoic age rocks may 
be found immediately under the surface rocks of the 
Drift period. i 

20. There have been some deep wells drilled in the | 

United States which will be noticed before closing ourT 
history of artesian wells, that the casual observer has )j 
become familiar with them. mW 

21. The records of these drillings show that som^ 
have been located as high as 1030 feet above sea level,"* 
(nearly the level of eastern Nebraska), some of which 
have been driven to a depth of 1900 feet below sea 

evel. Others have been driven 2678 feet deep. 


49 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 

22 . Crewzot has shown that these deep borings 
proves that, for all depths below the surface in the 
the temperate Zones, at the depths of the first 55 feet 
the tem})erature of the earth is about 52 ^ F. And 
that there will be an increase of temperature of one 
degree for each succeeding 55 feet in depth down to 
about 1800 feet deep. Below this the heat increases 
more rapidly so as to make an average at 2678 feet of 
one degree of heat for every JfJf. feet in depth, and no 
doubt that as the depth extends, the rapidity of the in¬ 
crease of the heat will continue. 

23. A successful flow of artesian water has been 
reached at St. Louis at the depth' of 3843^ feet. And 
at Louisville, Ky, a well drilled 2086 feet reached a 
reservoir of artesian water. An artesian well was 
found to flow at the depth of 1250 feet at Charleston, 
S. C. 

24. Artesian wells are now common and well- 
known in Pennsylvania, Ohio, New York, Indiana, 
Canada, Kansas, South Dakota and Northeastern Ne¬ 
braska, and along the Pacific slopes. 

25. As late as in July 1893 artesian water was 
found to flow from a drill 800 feet deep, at Belle 
Fourche, Dakota. In Nebraska artesian water has 
been found in Boyd, Knox, Dodge and Lancaster 
counties. 

A NEBRASKA ARTESIAN WELL. 

26. The artesian well at Niobrara, Neb., of which 
we give an illustration, has a depth of 650 feet, and is 
utilized in connection with a system of waterworks, 
electric light and motor powers, and a large flouring- 
mill. 

27. The well has a flow of twenty-five hundred gal¬ 
lons per minute through an eight-inch pipe, and with a 
pressure of ninety-five pounds to the square inch, the 
water rises to an elevation of eighty feet. The specta¬ 
cle, as the jet shoots upward and breaks and falls in 
masses of spray, is one of great beauty. 


50 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 

28. The water has a temperature of seventy ‘de¬ 
grees. The well is owned by the milling company of 
the enterprising town .—Nebraska Democrat.^ August 
11, 189k. 

29. In Pennsylvania, West Virginia, New York, 
Ohio, Canada, Indiana, and more recently, as late as 
in August 1893, in Illinois and North Dakota, in drill¬ 
ing for artesian water, gas and oil has been discovered. 


CHAPTER XI. 

PETROLEUM. 

Section 1.—1. Wells drilled for artesian water 
reveal the more valuable products of petroleum in the 
several forms of natural gas and mineral oils. And 
may include the several substances known in science 
under the following names: 1 Petroleum, 2 Naphtha, 

3 Bitumen, 4 Rangoon, 5 Paraffine, 6 Caoutchouc (Koo 
chook), 7 Caoutchoucine (Koo choo sin), 8" Kerosene, 

9 Asphalt. Some of these names are but synonyms of 
others. 

PETROLEUM. 

Sec. 2.—1. The word petroleum is formed from 
the Greek words signifying a rock and oil. So we 
sometimes say rock oil. 

As early as near 2000 B. C. it was said that “When 
the rock poured out oil for Job (29 ch. 6 v.) be re¬ 
joiced.” EE ^ 

2. Naphtha is a Persian name and signifies an in- 1 

flammable liquid of Hydro-Carbon. Or perhaps a mix" ’ 
ture containing three several Hydro-Carbons. j 

First —C7, III4, which boils at a temperature of ! 
190 F or 87 ^ C. This form of HC contains no 
oxygen. J 

3. Second —C8, Hl6, which boils at a temperature 
of 239 ^ F or 115 ^ C. 






51 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 

Third —Cl2, H24, which boils at a temperature of 
394 ® F or 190 ^ C. 

Asphalt appears to have several names; or several 
minerals by some experts are called asphalt which by 
others are called by different names. Among these 
may be mentioned Native Pitch, Mineral Pitch, Jew 
Pitch, Dead Sea Bitumen, Compact Bitumen, Trinidad 
Bitumen, and Maltha. Perhaps to these should be 
added Asphaltic Coal. 

4. These occur in nature in compact forms of an oily 
consistency, and in cracks, cavities and crevices of the 
solid rocks of the lower coal measure, and in the geo¬ 
logical Devonian system. 

5. Asphalts of the various kinds have a pitchy 
odor and a black, dark brown or pitch color, but they 
do not soil the hands when touched. They are in- 
soluble in water; sparingly soluble in alcohol, but 
may be dissolved by ether, oil of turpentine and by 
kerosene. 

WEIGHT OF PETROLEUM. 

Sec. 3.—1. The weight of petroleum is as 1,3 00 
to that of 1,000 for water. Petroleum burns with a 
smoky flame. It is found in New Brunswick, West 
Virginia, Ohio, Kentucky, Indiana, Illinois, the Da¬ 
kotas, Wyoming and many places along the eastern 
and Rocky Mountain slopes. 

2. Persian Petroleum in nature often occurs so 
nearly pure as to be suitable for burning without re¬ 
fining. 

The Burmese Petroleum is called Rangoon. 

Section 4.—1. Petroleum is abundant along the 
coasts of the Caspian Sea; and has been found in 
Burmah, Japan, Siberia, Prussia, Galacia, Roumania, 
Scotland, France, Italy; and in America, in Canada, 
New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, 
Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, the Dakotas, Wyoming, Colo, 
rado, California. And may be looked for elsewhere. 


52 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 

2. Petroleum is said to have been first discovered > 
in America by the Indians who collected it and sold it 
to white people for medicinal uses. 

3. But petroleum as an article of merchandise of 
great value, and as known in mineralogy, has been 
largely discovered and obtained through deep drillings 
from oil wells. In this country petroleum so dis-' 
covered has been called coal oil, rock oil and mineral 
OIL. Analysis proves i,t to be a liquid, Hydro-Carbon'. 

4. Bitumen., has been, by some mineralogists^ the ' 
name applied to the solid petroleum; But by others, 
the name of naphtha has been applied to liquid 
petroleum. 

5. The ancient Romans, under the name of Naphtha,' 
included. Mineral Pitch in several varieties such as 
Mineral Resin, Asphalt and Mineral Caoutchouc. 

6. Both Naphtha and Petroleum, as they are now 
known, essentially consist of carbon and hydrogen, in 
parts as of 84 to 88 per cent of carbon; and with about 
10 per cent of oxygen, forming solid Asphalt in con¬ 
taining a little Nitrogen. 

7. Bitumen is contained in most varieties of Min¬ 
eral coal, and in some black and some brown shales, 
slates and marls. And when these contain bitumen 
they are called bituminous; as bituminous shale. 


CHAPTER XII. 


HISTORY. 

Section 1. — 1. In 1859, Petroleum wells in the 
United States, were drilled in Pennsylvania, the first 
well yielding 82,000 barrels in the year. 

2. In 1861 the yield from all known wells in 
America was 2,000,000 barrels. In 1872 the North 
American oil wells yielded 7,394,000 barrels. 

3. In 1884 the United States exported 24,019,750 
barrels of Petroleum. 





Irrigation and Petroleum. 6S 

4. In 1887 the Petroleum industries had so far 
expanded that as many men were then employed in it 
as were employed in either the coal or iron industries 
in North America. 

5. Paraffine oil is a species of oily matter obtained 
from the distillation of Boghead Carmel coal. And a 
residuary substance formed by the refining of mineral 
petroleum. 

6. Paraffine may also be obtained from wood, nearly 
pure, by distillation. This oil boils at a temperature 
of 111 ® F. or at 44 ® C. 

7. But to obtain paraffine from some other substances 
it has required a temperature of 700 F. or at about 
371 ® C., to cause it to boil. 

8. The French Chemist Berthelot, and the Rus¬ 
sian Chemist Nendegeef, by chemical process, ex¬ 
tracted petroleum from coal, which was by them called 
maltha. 

ASPHALTUAr. 

Section 2.— 1. In Asphalt is a bituminous sub¬ 
stance of a more or less plastic or approaching solid 
form. 

2. In nature it sometimes occurs in large bodies 
and is called “Pitch Cakes,” in Trinidad, “Pitch.” 

3. Pitch (Jakes occur on the coasts of the Dead 
Sea, where the Arabs collect it under the name of 
“Moses Stone.” 

4. Asplialtum occurs in Coxitamb and Cuenca, in 
Alsace; in Scotland, at Lothiari, Fifeshire, and other 
points in Continental Europe. 

THE NAPTHALIC PETROLEUMS. 

Section 3.— 1. Napthalene contains the elements 
which for brevity may be shown by the chemical sym¬ 
bols, CIO H8. This substance has much historical and 
chemical interest. 

2. It was on the analysis of Napthalene that the 
Chemist Lawrent founded his theory of substitution. 


54 Irrigation and Petroleum. 

3. The Artificial Formation of Napthalene is 
effected by distillation of coal tar, and otherwise, as a 
semi solid when cold, but by pressure it will flow out 
as a liquid, taking up the napthalene with hot alcohol, 
from which it may be obtained in a pure state, as by 
this practice it crystalizes and sublimates. 

• Sec. 4.—1. Its crystals are thin rhombic plates. 
Napthalene crystals form^^thus,sides of equal length, 
unctuous to the touch^^and with a pure lustre. 
Napthalene under glass, exposed to the light will sub¬ 
limate, taking splendid crystal forms at ordinary tem¬ 
perature. It has a tar-like odor and a pungent, some¬ 
what aromatic taste. It will fuse at a temperature of 
176 ® F., 80 C., and it will boil at 424 F., 218 C. 

Its specific gravity while in a solid state is, as com¬ 
pared with water 4-^. 

2. When ignited it burns with a white and smoky 
flame. It is insoluble in water, but dissolves readily 
in alcohol, ether, or in fixed and essential oil. 

3. With an excess of sulphuric acid, by chemical 
action so produced, it changes to a substance called 
“Sulpho,” (ClO, 117, S03,-|-H2, O,) by the action. 

4. Several other substances are produced, and with 
nitric acid, when adding N5, O. Napthalene yields 
Nitro Napthalene, Cl2, H5, N, O, or their multiples. 
Substitutions as the equivalents ot 1, 2, -J- 3, by Hy¬ 
drogen of Napthalene.” 

5. Through the operations of an analysis the ele¬ 
ments called atoms must first be set free from any one 
chemical compound substance before they can chemi-^ 
cally combine to form another and a differently chemi¬ 
cally combined substance. 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 


55 


CHAPTER XIII. 


THE NATURAL ELEMENTS (ATOMS) OF 
PETROLEUM. 

Section 1.—1. In well borings for petroleum, the 
driller often before reaching oil or water, sets free 
NATURAL GAS. 

2. At first this was peculiarly true in the Ohio, In¬ 
diana and contiguous petroleum fields. 

3. The natural gas which occurs at different local¬ 
ities, varies as to its purity, and in various relative pro¬ 
portions of its elements. 

4. As at Muncie, Anderson, Kokomo and Marion, 
its elementary weight vanes from 0.57 to 0.60, that of 
Marsh gas. 

ANDERSON KOKOMA MARION 

93.70 94.16 93.58 

1.80 1.41 1.20 

.49 .30 .15 

.73 .55 .60 

.26 .29 .30 

.42 .30 .55 

3.02 2.80 3.42 

.15 .18 .20 

Natural gases are the gases that are formed in and 
upon the earth by natural causes, and their chief ele¬ 
ments are carbon and hydrogen, and hence they are 
called carbonated hydrogen. 

5. In nature’s laboratory, as in that of the practi¬ 
cal chemist, each element of one natural compound 
must be first set free before it can combine differently 
to form another natural substance. 

6. The Findlay gas wells yield a product of which 
90 per cent is carbonated hydrogen. 

7. Natural gas has been known to have occurred in 
the lower Silurian, Eozoic aged shale, blue and dove 
colored dry limestone, where it was composed of; 


MUNCIE 

92.67 

Atoms_ 2.35 

Olebrant Gas .25 

C, 0.45 

C, 0.25 

O.35 

N. 3.53 

S, H.45 








56 Irrigation and Petroleum. 


Carbonate of lime. 54.30 

Carbonate of Magnesia. 33.60 

Alumina and Oxide of Iron. 3.90 

Silicious Residue. 6.10 

Lost by Evaporation. 2.00 


Total. 100.00 


Before the discovery of natural gas by the drilling 
of deep wells, most of the gas used for lighting pri¬ 
vate buildings, towns and cities was distilled from 
mineral coal, leaving a coke and coal tar on its passage 
from the hot distilling furnace to the gas tank or 
holder, depositing the coal tar by gravitation in a tank 
placed so as to receive it from the retorts. The gas 
passing on as a volatile substance to the purifying tank 
where it rose through water into the tank. 

Sec. 2 .—1. The explorators with the drill have 
shown in Indiana, that there, is the largest known 
petrolific gas rock field in the world, it containing 1800 
square miles. 

2. In the Gas Field known in Pennsylvania, 
Ohio, West Virginia, Indiana, and Canada, the Petro¬ 
lific rocks have all been found below the Carboniferous 
aged formation, and in the Stratified rocks of the 
Aqueous or Invertebrate age; and in the upper portion 
of that age, or at the base of the Carboniferous, in the 
so called Trenton; or lower in the Niagara limestone, 
the Utica and Hudson river shales, and Devonian sand¬ 
stones. 

3. But natural gas in other Petroliferous fields has 
been found in the newer rocks above, in each sediment¬ 
ary formation up to those of Psychozoic age. Wher¬ 
ever an impervious rock and natural gas reservoir have 
occurred, increasing cellular and petroliferous rocks, 
with evidences of having at some earlier age been suP 
ficiently moist and heated for the natural distilling of 
the gas, oil, and other bituminous substances. 

4. But in Indiana, the surface rocks, where usually 









57 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 

they are of aqueous age, the Petroliferous rocks are 
those of the upper and middle Silurian age. 

PETROLEUM FIELDS. 

Sec. 3.—1. Petroleum fields are those regions 
where mineral oil or rock oil may be obtained from the 
earth. 

2. These oils are now known in the United States 
as Petroleum, but in some foreign states it is known 
by the name of Naptha. 

3. Where petroleum has*been distilled from buried 
materials by natural processes, it is not very different 
from that formed by artificial means from wood, 
exhumes, bog-head, swamps, mineral coals, black sand¬ 
stones, black shale, black slate, caoutchouc, hevea-gun 
ensis slates. The two last named substances are used 
in the manufacture of India rubber goods. 

4. In speaking of the petroleum fields, we include 
many gas fields. 

5. Natural Gas and petroleum, as mineral oil, 
have been produced, but by a little different cause, 
from fossilized, animal and vegetable material under a 
less or greater heat and pressure, with moisture. 

6. Where, on the surface of the ground the petro¬ 
liferous rocks do not crop out and appear, and one has 
good reason to believe that such rocks exist, at consid¬ 
erable depths, the drill may be used to test the strata 
down to the granite rocks, below which no oil or gas 
is found in paying quantities. 

gj 5 C. 4.—1. Where the surface rocks are the Arch¬ 
aean granite. Azoic rocks, no petroleum will ever be 
found in or below these. 

2. The evidences of the upheaval of the strata must 
appear in the petroleum field, and the formation of 
anticlinals, into this summit of rather flatly formed 
anticlinals, the explorator must enter his drill to find 
coal, mineral oil, petroleum in the form of gas, liquid 
petroleum and solid naptha. 


68 Irrigation and Petroleum. 

3. The anticlinal may be an unbroken fold, a 
table land or a bench. 

4. But there must be found in it a natural reservoir 
below; the summit surface having an impervious roof, 
usually of clay, shale, slate or any other impervious 
rock. 

5. Under the roof there must be found a porous 
rock which may contain gas, oil or water. 

6. The elements of petroleum must have been dis¬ 
tilled from a petroliferous formation probably below 
the gas or oil reservoir, and may have as the lighter 
fluid flowed up, or have been by water forced up into 
the reservoir; so as to have provided sufficient pressure 
to form a gushing gas or oil well, or to make an ar¬ 
tesian well when pierced by the drill. 

7. Sand, gravel and bowlder beds have the natural 
porosity to form such reservoirs; and that “p^^’^^^ity is 
found in a very high condition in crystalized dolomitic 
limestones; in which there is found sufficient space in 
the interstice of the small crystals forming the dolo¬ 
mite to contain the petroleum deposits.” 

8. In the Indiana oil fields the gas and oil are 
reached by the drill wherever it pierces the marbleized 
limestones; dolomite called there the Trenton lime¬ 
stone. 

9. In Canada it was thought that only the De¬ 
vonian rocks and older and lower rocks were petroli¬ 
ferous, and that gas and oil had been distilled from 
rocks lower than the Devonian roof of the reservoir. 

10. While in Pennsylvania it was believed to have 
come from the higher and newer carboniferous beds. 
But in both Canada and in Pennsylvania the petroleum 
was found in a porous sandstone reservoir of Devonian 
geological period. 

11. But it is now or may be generally conceded 
that petroleum may occur in the rocks of any geologi¬ 
cal age; have a porous reservoir with an impervious 
roof, under which beds of fossils are buried. 


59 


Irrigation and Petroleum, 

Section 5.—1. The gas and oil rocks at Findlay, 
Lima and Bowling Green, Ohio, and at Muncie to 
Kokomo in the great gas and oil fields of Indiana, is 
the Trenton limestone, where it has been through in¬ 
ternal heat changed to a dolomite. This rock at 
Muncie and Kokomo contains these several elements: 


2. 

MUNCIE. 

KOKOMO. 

Carbonate of lime. 

. 51.96 

52.80 

Carbonate of Magnesia. 

. 38.11 

39.50 

Alumina and Oxide of Iron. 

. 3.72 

2.40 

Silicious Residue. 

. 3.30 

4.60 

Lost by Evaporation. 

. 2.91 

.70 


100 . 100 . 

3. So at most of the very great number of deep 
drilling in the great petroleum fields it is found that 
the dolomitic reservoir of each severally varies in its 
elementary composition. 

4. Limestones containing from 80 to 90 per cent of 
carbonate lime are too close grained, and want the 
porosity necessary for a petroleum reservoir. 


CHAPTER XIV. 


Section 1.—1. Where the geological ages are 
named from the conditions and kinds of their rocks 
and from their several characteristic contained fossil 
life forms. 

2. First —Geological age must be called the Ig¬ 
neous and the Azoic Age. 

Secoisd —The Aqueous, Molluskan and Invertebrate 
Age. 

Third— First Age of Lowlands and Vertebrates. 

Fourth —The Hill, High and Valley Lands, Reptil- 
lian Age. 

Fifth —The Leveling and Mammalian Age. 

Sixth— The Finishing, and the Age of Man. 

3. But a briefer and more convenient designation 











60 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 
of these geological ages, if we may allowed to in¬ 
clude the whole period of the time of what many 
geologists include in the so-called “ Cambrian Lower, 
Middle and Upper Silurian,^’ during which periods 
there was no vertebrate, no land life, while all life 
was marine. Aqueous and all animals were inverte¬ 
brate, in the Second Age. To name the ages with 
reference to the progress of life. 

Section 2.—1. We should call the 

First —The Azoic Age. 

Second —The Eozoic Age. 

Third —The Paleozoic Age. 

Fourth —The Mesozoic Age. 

Fifth —The Oenozoic Age. 

Sixth —The Psychozoic Age. 


OZOIC. CENOZOIC. PSYCHOZOIC. 

ILIANS. MARSUPALIANS. MAN. 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 


61 


AGES, PEHIODS AND 
AGE SYSTEMS. 


Man, Quater¬ 
nary. 


Tertiary 


Cretaceous 


WEAIiDEN. 


OOIiYTIC. 


JURASIC 

mill 

sg 

Liassic. 


Triassic, 



PERIODS. LOCAL 
NAMES OF KOCK. 


Present, River & 
Lake deposits. 


Clays, Sands and 
Gravel 

Drift Modified. 


Drift, Unstratified 

Neocene. 

Post Pliocene. 

Pliocene. 

Miocene. 


Eocene. 


Chalk, Loess, 
Yellow, White «& 
Gray Clays. 


Upp’r Green sands 
Coal. 

Wealden, Upper 
Oolyte Clays. 

Limestones, Low¬ 
er Oolyte. 

Upper Liassic. 

Marlstone. 

Lower Liassic. 
Keuper. 

Muchelkalk 
Bunter Sandstein. 













































































62 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 


AGES. PERIODS AND 
AGE SYSTEMS. 


m 

Iz: 

<33 Permian_... 

« 

bW 

hH lL^ 

9 S Carboniferous. 

w 

Ph Catskill.. 


HChemong. 

cc Subcarboniferous. 

M 


Hamilton 


Carniferous 

Devonian. 



PERIODS, local 
NAMES OF BOCK. 

Permain. 

Upper Coal mea¬ 
sure. 

Limestone. 


Upper Coal. 

Limestone. 

Sandstone. 

Lower Coal Meas. 

Limestone. 

Sandstone. 

Coal. 

Limestone & Sand 
Coal. 

Catskill, Cbemong 
Portage. 

Genesee Shale. 

Hamilton, Marcel- 
lus, Schoharie. 

Corniferous. 

Canda-Gallic. 


Oriskana. 

^ Lower Helderberg 

^Salina. 

m 

g Niagara. 

qK Clinton. 

Medina. 

Nm 

O 

Cincinnati. 

o 

^ Utica. 

Trenton. 

O Canadian. 

Primordial. 


Cambrian. 

tn Archaean. 

dt» 

qO Igneous.. 

2 Granite Bottom., 



Oriskana Lower 
Helderberg,Salina 
Niagara, Clinton. 
Medina. 

Cincinnati. 

Utica. 

Trenton. 

Chaza. 

Quebec. 

Calciferous. 

Potsdam. 

Arcadian, 

Archaean. 

Neiss 

Granite. 














































































































Irrigation and Petroleum. 


6S 


THE ROCKY FORMATIONS. 

4. The rocks of the “First Geological Age” being 
the lowest knowni and the oldest; and the rocks of each 
succeeding age being higher and newer than those of 
the rocks of the earlier geological ages. 

Sec. 4.—1. The petroliferous rocks of Pennsyl¬ 
vania, Canada and Indiana have all been found to be¬ 
long to rock capped or covered by the upper carbonif¬ 
erous paleozoic beds, and the petroleum deposits in or 
under the so-called Devonian beds which cap the 
Eozoic Age beds. And the Devonian may be said to 
lay at the base of the lower carboniferous Paleozoic 
Age rocks. 

2. The petroliferous rocks in Ohio and Indiana are 
the the middle and Silurian of the Eozoic Age. 

Where a well was drilled at Logansport, Indiana, 
the surface rocks are called the Lower Helderberg; 
these are below the Devonian, consisting of a water 
limestone, a silicious limestone of a yellowish color, 
and 15 feet thick. Next below this surface rock there 
is an 8 feet thick blue limestone. Then lower the 3d 
20 feet of fire limestone. 

3. A second well which beginning below surface 
colored Devonian limestone; the drill passed down 
through the Lower Helderberg from the top. 1st, A 
brecciated chertry layer 15 feet. 2d, Fossiliferous and 
evenly bedded magnesian limestone, 15 feet. 3d, 
Thin bedded w^ater limestone, 10 feet. 4th, Thicker 
impure w^ater limestone bedding, 15 feet. 5th, Thin 
bedded water limestone, 10 feet. Total 65 feet where 
gas was first reached by the drill. 

4. The thickness of these several beddings appear to 
have been the results of volcanic heat and flow from 


64 Irrigation and Petroleum. 

the more or less powerful pulsations of intermittent 

volcanic eruptions and heat under the sea. 

5. But continuing the borings dowm to the Tren¬ 
ton beds, that is below the middle Silurian Eozoic Age 
rocks, wells in Indiana have reached at the seveial 
depths from 800 to 1,600 feet, gas and oil. And 
reaching horizons from 100 to 300 feet below the sea 
level, from where the gas and oil were forced up by 
salt water pressure, which sometimes when the oil 
stratum had by the drill been passed gave the pro¬ 
prietor an artesian w^ll of salt, or fresh water having 
great force. 

6. When the surface rocks are lower Helderberg, 
through which the drill first passes and all the follow¬ 
ing beds, if found, down to the Trenton (upper part 
of the lower Silurian) beds, Eozoic Age svstem of 
limestones which are the Indiana oil bearing, or the 
petroliferous reservoir, then from the surface pass 
through several strata below in the following order of 
beds: The Salina, Niagara, Clinton, Medina, Cincin¬ 
nati and Utica, and then entering the Trenton a few 
feet the drill reaches and sets free gas and oil from 
this limestone or Dolomite reservoir. 

7. But we must not forget that in most localities 
some one or more of the strata named will be missing. 
In such case the next lower stratum if porous, as the 
Trenton, gas or oil may be reached. 

8. In Ohio and Indiana the Trenton is usually over¬ 
laid by the Utica shale, at its highest levels not less 
than 100 feet below the sea level. 

9. Here the Trenton is a dolomite if containing 
gas, oil or salt water. 

10. In California, petroleum occurs in the lower 
rocks of the Cenezoic Age, Tertiary System, the 
Eocene beds. In Pennsylvania petroleum occurs in 
black or dark brown porous sandstones, of which 
there are from one to five several beds in different lo¬ 
calities. The third bed of this kind of rock has 


65 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 
usually been found to yield petroleum in most liberal 
supplies of either gas or oil, but the fourth and fifth 
beds have often been found to be more petroliferous 
than the third. 

DEPTH OF PETROLEUM WELLS. 

Section 5.—1. These gas and oil wells have been 
sunk from 200 to 2,000 feet deep. 

2 . Where the Niagara limestone beds are on the 
surface the Trenton was found to be a gas reservoir. 
But where the lower Helderberg beds were on the sur¬ 
face the Trenton was an oil reservoir. 

DEAD LINE. 

Section 6 .—1. In Ohio it was found that 400 feet 
below the sea level was the ‘'dead line” as to depth; 
and oil has not in a single instance been found below 
this line. But instead of oil, salt water may be found 
in the reservoir below the “dead line.” 

THICKNESS OF THE PETROLEUM RESERVOIR STRATUM. 

Section 1. —1. The elevation of the roof above the 
bottom “dead line” of salt water, marks the thickness 
of the gas and oil bearing reservoir rocks. Within 
these upper and lower bounds, in.the petroleum fields, 
the thickness here varies from 150 to 175 feet. 

2 . I have taken these facts largely from Mr. Hor¬ 
ton’s report to the United States government and he 
says “That shale is never a petroliferous rock.” Res¬ 
ervoirs may occur at different elevations, and the dead 
line several hundred feet below tide water. 

3. The Trenton limestones were formed during the 
lower middle Eozoic Age and ‘Silurian period. The 
rocks of this period were laid down in the marine 
w^aters of the Aqueous Age. 

4. Durinsr this asfe of the earth the earth’s crust 
w^as thin, often fissuring and pouring the hotest lavas 
into the universal ocean, heating the waters, destroy¬ 
ing the dawning life, and sedimentating fossil remains 


66 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 

while precipitating carbonates of lime and forming 
what is now known in this country as Trenton lime¬ 
stones; the petrolific rocks. 

5. Hence it has been said “ That the Trenton lime¬ 
stone is one of the firmest and most massive and wide¬ 
spread stratum in the foundations of the North 
American continent,” and probably equally wide-spread 
in all other continents. And this stratum is one of, 
if not the most petrolific of all of the stratified rock. 
So indicating the most abundant and wide-spread res¬ 
ervoirs of petroleum, for the uses of civilized peoples. 

6 . And wherever this stratum by volcanic, action 
has been thrown by underlying waves of the earth’s 
hot and liquid molten matter and then cooled and left 
in wave-like anticlinals and synclinals that the ex- 
plorator may look for gas, oil and for artesian waters. 


CHAPTER XV. 


HISTORY OF OIL WELLS. 

Section 1 .—1. Ever since Job found oil in “the 
rocks of the land of Uz,” Avhere “the rock poured out 
oil,” about 1800 B. C., this land east of Judea where 
Job had his possessions, has been supposed to be the 
province of Cush in Assyria, north of the Persian Gulf. 

THE ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM. _^ 

2 . Prof. Newberry says “ That petroleum occurs 
most abundantly in subcarboniferous rocks of the Ap- 
palachain Chain.” 

3. It has also been said “ That petroleum emanates 
from the lower Silurian shale.” “ That the petroleum 
reservoir must be underlaid by bituminous rocks or 
bituminous shales.” “ That a petroleum reservoir may 
occur in the rocks of any geological age, where there 
is an impervious roof, to a porous containing bed or 




67 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 
layer, and the elementary atoms below have by dis¬ 
tillation and natural chemical action been set free, and 
reunited to form petroleum.” 

4. The elements of petroleum are among the origi¬ 
nal elements of the earth. And as science teaches us, 
that there has never been a single atom of matter lost 
or extinguished, we must conclude; that, as from natur¬ 
al chemical action in distilling the carbonates of hydro¬ 
gen, petroleum has been originally formed. Notwith¬ 
standing we may continue to burn natural gas, and 
rock or mineral oils, the supply can never be exhausted 
so long as their atoms are set free to reunite and again 
re-produce petroleum. If not in the earth, by some arti¬ 
ficial means yet to be invented and applied by human 
genius. 

ACCORDING TO PROF. EDWARD ORTAN. 

Sec. 2. — 1. Petroleum is derived from organic mat¬ 
ter. 

2. It is much more largely derived from vegetable 
than from animal substances. 

3. The petroleum of the Pennsylvania type is de¬ 
rived from the organic matter of bituminous shale and 
is of vegetable origin. 

4. Petroleum of the Canada and Lima types is de¬ 
rived from limestones and is of animal origin. 

5. Petroleum has been produced at normal temper¬ 
atures of rocks in the Ohio fields, and is not a produc¬ 
tion x)f destructive distillation of bituminous shale. 

6. The stock of petroleum in the rocks is already 
practically complete. 

7. While we recognize the great credit to which 
Prof. Ortan is entitled for his researches on the subject 
of petroleum, we must be permitted to refresh his 
memory as to certain well-known scientific facts and 
principles in natural science. 

Sec. 3.— 1 . All organic matter has its origin in the 
usual chemical combinations of free atoms, resulting 


€8 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 
from and in germination, conception, growth, life and 
maturity of plants and animals. 

2. Destructive distillation of animal and other or¬ 
ganic bodies may occur through their being digested, 
corroded, decayed, oxydized, burned, and thus separa¬ 
ting the contained atoms of matter and setting them 
free to recombine chemically into petroleum or other 
fluid and solid bodies. .. 

3. The original growth of all plants and animals 
was near the surface of the earth, in the waters, on the 
earth’s surface and in the air. 

4. Subsidences and the flow of waters from higher 
to lower levels, during such subsidences and during up¬ 
heavals and the flows of volcanic lavas, have been the 
chief causes of the burial and reupheavals of organic 
matters from which petroleum has heretofore been, and 
hereafter wdll continue to be distilled in the earth. 
Such distillation has probably taken place in a temper¬ 
ature of the buried organic material of about 400 '^F., 
as this temperature is required in the artificial manu¬ 
facture of petroleum. 

5. While the normal temperature of the earth 
within from 60 to 150 feet of the surface does not exceed 
from 55 to 70 F. And from 55 feet deep down¬ 
ward the heat increases at the rate of one degree for 
each succeeding 60 feet in depth. 

6. Hence 15,000 feet or less below the earth’s sur¬ 
face there must be about 400 F., or heat sufficient to 

distill petroleum from bituminous materials. And 
with a higher connected reservoir of a porous stratum 
in which the products of distillation may be confined, 
natural gas and mineral oils may hopefully be pros¬ 
pected for with the diamond drill. 

7. We include in the term petroleum both natural 
gas, mineral oils and several other bituminous products. 
Either of these products may be discovered in the rocks 
n,bove those of the Eozoic aged beds. 


69 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 

8. While making deep drillings or wells, artesian, 
mineral and salt waters may be found of great value. 
Artesian water is most likely to occur in a synclinal— 
petroleum on an anticlinal. 

9. ‘‘That gas may be found, but not generally 
alone, where the trend of the arched stratum having an 
impervious roof occuring in coarse and porous sand¬ 
stone of considerable thickness, or in fissures and frac¬ 
tures of closer grained rock beds which serve as a res¬ 
ervoir for gas and must underlie great depths of 500 
to 25,000 feet of uncarboniferous (or a bed of imper¬ 
vious rocks.)” 

10. “ In Pennsylvania the oil strata are reached 
from the top of the ground by drilling through the 
following strata in the order to be named. 

Several hundred feet of soft, fine grained 

shale. 

Second^ Sandstones bedded in shale. 

This order occurs from three to five times as found 
at different localities, the paying oil flow being found 
in one or more of the sandstone reservoirs from the 
third to the fifth.” 

11. ‘‘In Ohio, the petroleum oil fields are drift 
covered plains. Their fertility of soil is only exceeded 
by those of the Russian oil fields,” or the drift covered 
plains of Nebraska and states of the great plains east 
of the Rocky Mountains, yet to be developed as petro¬ 
leum fields. 

12. These plains rising from near the Mississippi 
and Missouri rivers, to the foot of the Rocky moun¬ 
tains from 800 feet to 1,500 feet, and upwards, above 
sea level. 

13. “The wells of greatest productiveness in the oil 
fields of Lima, Ohio, are limited to depths of from 370 
to 390 feet below the level of tide water.” 

14. “The oil and salt water bearing rock is a dol¬ 
omite and Magnesian limestone. This stratum is found 


TO Irrigation and Petroleum. 

to be at first a hard cap, of from 3 to 7 feet thick 
through which the drill is driven, then reaching a por¬ 
ous dolomite of from 7 to 15 feet thick, and below in 
this same dolomite stratum the salt water rock, a hard 
and fine grained rock is pierced, making altogether a 
depth of 30 feet. 

15. Below this the experienced driller seldom 
drives his drill, as this has been proved to be the “dead 
line ” for petroleum in these fields. 

16. In the Indiana gas fields it is said “that the 
‘Guelph,’ Metamorphosed, or Niagara and limestone, 
changed to a true dolniite at the surface of the ground, 
is a good limestone to burn, but a poor building rock. 
Next below the Niagara shales appear; below these 
comes 

THE CLINTON LIMESTONES. 

17. These occur with small outcroppings, in South¬ 
ern Indiana; below these were found 

18. The Cincinnati group of shale, that is, the 
Hudson River shale; passing below this the drill 
pierces a dark blue shale, black shale, an upper fossil- 
iferous limestone of 15 to 30 feet tliick, included in 
this group of 250 to 300* feet thick. 

19. The drill then reaching the Utica shale, a 
stratum of black shale with its characteristic fauna, 
including Leptobolus insignus (Hall) Triarthus (Becki) 
then reaching 

20. The Trenton limestone, there occurring as a 
dolomite and yielding oil, from under the table lands. 


CHAPTER XVI. 


OIL WELL INDUSTRIES. 

Section 1. — 1. In modern times oil well drillings 
have become one of the greatest industries in the 
United States, and with scientific and practical loca- 





Irrigation and Petroleum. 71 

tions for such wells the chances are more than two to 
one that the drilling will pay a large dividend. 

2. One of the first oil wells drilled in the United 
States was in 1854, at Petrolia, on Oil Creek, near Lake 
Erie, and the next was drilled in 1858, at Titusville, 
Pennsylvania. 

3. But in 1860, the Pennsylvania oil fields were 
known to cover over 100 square miles. 

4. From 1860 until 18Vl there had been so many 
successful drillings made for oil in Pennsylvania and 
West Virginia, and Ohio, that it was then thought 
that the yield of petroleum from them would supply 
the world., 

5. But no such conclusion would have been reached 
had the oil producers of that time have known the ex¬ 
tent of the various useful purposes to which petroleum 
products were destined to be applied. 

THE OHIO PETROLEUM FIELDS. 

Sec. 2. — 1. In 1884, a drilling, as an experiment, 
was made at Findlay, Ohio, 1100 feet deep, when the 
drill set loose a gas jet with great force. Plere the 
drill passed a hard and imperviotis roof in the Trenton 
limestone, to a dolomitic reservoir in the same forma¬ 
tion. 

2. At North Baltimore, in the Findlay, Ohio, field 
an oil well was found which yielded in each 24 hours 
5,000 barrels of oil. This was then thought to be the 
largest yield per day of any well tapping Trenton lime¬ 
stone, and the middle Silurian system of rocks, while 
the first flowing well struck in 1861, yielded only 1,000 
barrels per day. 

3. A well drilled at Sherman, Ohio, yielded oil at 
the aggregate of 225,000 barrels per year. A well at 
Noble yielded 500,000 barrels in the first year after it 
was drilled. 

4. The Lima oil fields in Ohio from the time the 
first well was drilled on the farm owned by J. W. 


12 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 

Ridenorer put into tanks 2,760 barrels the first twenty- 
four hours a dark colored oil. 

5. Several oil wells were drilled at Adams, Ohio. 
Here the drillings were driven 100 feet deeper than 
the Findlay wells, and to levels below tide water 
2,000 feet from each other, and 400 feet below tide 
water proved to be here the “ dead line,” below which 
oil was not in a single instance found. 

6. The many other and more recent discoveries of 
petroleum included with all others in Ohio, Pennsyl¬ 
vania and Indiana pointed the oil explorator to the Mer¬ 
cer fields in 1886 when oil was there discovered. 

EXPORTING PETROLEUM. 

Sec. 3.—1. In 1870 and before that time the total 
exports of mineral oil had reached the value of about 
$19,304,224, and the total value of petroleum products 
reached in value $46,574,970. 

2. And in 1876 the value of petroleum products 
delivered at the sea board equalled in value $300,- 
000,000. The total products at the wells w^ere esti¬ 
mated at a value of $400,000,000. 

3. The price of refined petroleum oil in London 
from America was 6^ cents per gallon in 1879. 

4. In 1880 the commercial oil industries had be¬ 
come so great that pipe lines began to be laid to con¬ 
vey the products of crude oil from the wells to re¬ 
fineries near the sea. The products for 1880 are said 
to have been (perhaps increased) 15,765,800 barrels, 
and the exports 420,000,000 gallons. 


CHAPTER XVII. 


THE INDIANA GAS WELLS. 

Section 1.—1. It has been noticed that the pro¬ 
ductiveness of the several petroleum bearing forma- 





Irrigation and Petroleum. "73 

tions increases as these and the reservoirs are found to 
be buried deeper in the earth. 

2. The Indiana gas wells have been drilled about 
875 to 975 feet deep. 

3. The products of the yield of gas from any given 
well during twenty-four hours is usually stated as a 
given number of cubic feet per day. 

4. In June, 1887, a well drilled at Fairmount, 
Grant county, Indiana, yielded 11,500,000 cubic feet 
per day. 

5. A gas well at Van Buren, Ohio, yielded 15,- 
000,000 cubic feet per day. 

6. Many other wells in Indiana and in Ohio, 
severally yielded from 1,000,000 variously up to 4,- 
000,000 cubic feet per day, and others still more, from 
5,000,000 u}) to 11,000,000 cubic feet per day. 

7. A gas well in either Ohio or Indiana would be 
considered of little or no value if its yield did not ex¬ 
ceed 500,000 cubic feet per day, if the well be cased 
by a 4^ inch piping. 

8. The main gas field in Indiana is within the 
counties of Deleware, Blackford, Madison, Grant, 
Plamilton and Howard, all in a fine agricultural region. 

GAS BOOMING TOWNS. 

Section 2.—1. The records of gas well drillings 
show that in 1887 a well drilled to the depth of 875 feet 
at the town of Muncie, reaching seventy feet below 
tide water,yielding a large supply of gas caused many 
factories to be located at this town. 

2. In the same year a little north of Muncie at 
Hartford City, gas was found by drilling to the 
depth of 963 feet, reaching eighty feet below tide 
water. In sinking this well the drill first passed 
through 126 feet of drift. 2nd, 149 feet of limestone. 
3d, 688 feet of shale. 4th, Then reaching in the 
Trenton limestone the gas reservoir, which yielded 
from 875,000 to 1,000,000 cubic feet of gas per day, 


74 Irrigation and Petroleum. 

gushing up with a force of 350 pounds pressure to the 

square inch. 

A second well drilled at Hartford yielded 10,- 
000,000 cubic feet per day. 

3. A well at Anderson yielded 13,500,000 cubic 
feet per day. 

A well at Marion yielded 11,500,000 feet per day. 

4. A successful well drilling at Nobleville through 
sixty feet of drift, 400 feet of limestone, 392 feet of 
shale, and to the depths of seven feet into a dolomite 
Trenton limestone, reached gas eighty-seven feet below 
tide water, on the Wainright farm. It yielded about 
*7,000,000 cubic feet of gas per day. 

5. A well at Kokomo which was drilled through 
sixty feet of drift, 360 feet of Niagara water lime¬ 
stone, 280 feet of blue shale, 236 feet of dark and 
brown shale, and eight feet into the Trenton limestone, 
where the drilling ta])ped the gas reservoir at a depth 
of 944 feet. But the drillers in hope of a greater flow 
drove the drill twenty-two feet deeper, when the gas 
was cut off by a flow of salt water. The greatest flow 
of gas was just before the salt water was reached. 

6. This experiment proved the fact that gas could 
be had at Kokomo. And two other wells were at 
once driven here, one yielding 820,000 and the other 
1,123,200 cubic feet of gas per day. 

7. A fifth well drilled 912 feet deep at Kokomo; the 
lowest fourteen feet in the Trenton rocks, yielded 7,- 
500,000 cubic feet cf gas per day. 

8. In one instance a well drilled only 525 feet deep 
found a reservoir of gas in the shale. 

9. Aside from the “dead line” as a caution to 
drillers for petroleum, if on reaching the Trenton 
rock, it should not be capped with a haj-d and im¬ 
pervious roof, or if under the roof the Trenton lime¬ 
stone be not dolomitized and porous, there will be but 
faint hopes for petroleum in that stratum. 


75 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 

10. The gas found in the petroleum fields of Ohio 
and Indiana is of about the same as to its purity. 


CHAPTER XVIII. 


THE IMPORTANCE OF DEEP WELL DRILL¬ 
INGS. 

Section 1.—1 The importance of deep well drill¬ 
ing for experimental purposes can be scarcely over¬ 
estimated. And this is especially true within the 
Great Plains and semi-arid regions. 

2. In making drillings in these regions the driller 
will usually find at the surface the same aged drift 
east of the Rocky Mountains, as we have shown, has 
been found west of the Appalachian Chain, within 
Ohio and Indiana, and all within the basin of the 
Mississippi and Missouri rivers. 

3. In the west the question of irrigation of the arid 
regions, for the purpose of finding homes for the 
homeless and the increasing multitudes of such as our 
children and grand children increase in numbers makes 
the question of providing such homes of the greatest 
national im^jortance to our future civilization. Shall 
we as a people degenerate into nomads for the want 
of homes? Homes must be provided! or those unpro¬ 
vided for must nomadize! The home is the induce¬ 
ment to good citizenship. What interest can one have 
in any community, any country in which he cannot 
obtain and retain a home? 

4. To utilize the Great Plains by irrigatian and 
and otherwise for homes should be the highest ambi¬ 
tion, as it would be the greatest patriotism of the 
statesmen. 

5. In boring deep wells for artesian water, gas, oil, 
salt water, coal and for the discovery of building rock 
and experimental purposes the diamond drill should 




16 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 

always be used, the core carefully withdrawn, meas¬ 
ured, and a correct record made of all beds of earth, 
rocks and strata passed by the drillings, and the well 
safely cased with iron pipings. 

6. The internal pressure of closed pipes of gas has 
been found in some instances to equal 950 pounds to 
the square inch. In other cases more or less. Some 
500 pounds and so on down to a merely sensible pres¬ 
sure. 


1 . “The force of the pressure of gas and of oil are 
said to equal that of salt water behind the petroleum” 
in reirions where the three occur. 


8. The value of natural gas discoveries is almost 
invaluable because there are so many purposes to 
which it may be applied. 

9. The value of gas for heating as compared with 
the best Pennsylvania coal is said “ to be as one ton 
of coal to 31,000 cubic feet of natural gas. 

10. But counting the weight, waste and expense of 
handling of coal, it will make the relative value for 
heating equal one ton of coal to but 15,000 cubic feet 
of natural gas in the immediate vicinity of the Indiana 
gas fields.” 

11. If we take into our calculation, regions of great 

distances from the coal fields and can there, as upon 
the great arid jdains, discover natural gas, the imi^or- 
tance of such discovery will make in favor of gas a 
vastly greater difference in its value. ^ . 

B' ^ 

12. And when we consider the cost of transporta¬ 
tion as between petroleum and coal here again every¬ 
thing is in favor of gas, and oil which may be piped ,b 
while coal must be cai-ried by hand, horse and steam 
power over land and water. 

13. The reader may make his own estimate, having 
sufficient facts and data before him. 

In Findlay, Ohio, the city is piped for the use of 
gas from the gas wells, and there the charge for 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 77 

natural gas for each cooking stove per month is 15 
cents. 

14. Natural gas at Findlay is in general use for 
generating steam power, wherever needed for manu¬ 
facturing purposes. And jets of burning gas are used 
for welding iron, melting and making glass, and tak¬ 
ing the place of coal for fuel at less than two-thirds its 
cost. 

15. At Lima, Ohio, the rolling mills and nail mills 
are riln, and Fricks burnt by heat from burning natural 
gas. 

Where these developments are practical and known 
to the people they show their appreciation. 

16. In the petroleum field of Canada, Pennsylvania, 
West Virginia, Western Ohio and Northern Indiana 
the discoveries of mineral oil and natural gas have had 
the effect of inducing the people in nearly every county 
seat to drill for petroleum, and to have been so gen¬ 
erally successful, that there, where before these drill¬ 
ings there were but a few people in small towns; 
within the past ten years these towns have been 
built up into large manufacturing cities, now contain¬ 
ing many thousands of people. Real estate has rapidly 
advanced in value, and many of the residents within 
this period have become rich. 

THE FARMER SHOULD BE ACTUAL LAND OWNER. 

Sec. 2.—1. Title to irrigated lands should include 
the title to the water necessary to irrigate the land. 
The general government should stop the sale of large 
bodies of desert lands, to capitalists who may irrigate 
these lands then sell at greatly advanced prices, and 
rent the water so as to absorb the value of the produc¬ 
tions of the actual farmer. 

2. The government by the necessary congressional 
legislation should develop and apply the neccessary 
water supply to irrigate the arid lands, then give or 
sell them to actual homesteaders in farms not exceed 



18 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 

iiig twenty acres to each head of a family. This may 
be done so as to provide a revenue sufficient to keep 
advancing these irrigation improvements. 


WILL IRRIGATION PAY? 

Sec. 3. — 1. It will be further seen by the following 
table, how well irrigation has been made to pay, as 
“ compiled from census and California State Horticul¬ 
tural reports by Palmer & Chapin, in their district of 
the Tierra Bonita Colonies, in Los Angeles County, 
California. 


IRRIGATION VERSUS NON-IRRIGATION. 


Population of Los Angeles County, 1870, 15,309; 1890, 
101,451. Increase over 660 per cent. 

IRRIGATION AS A POPULATION MAGNET. 

Covering a period of twenty years—1870 to 1890. 

Population of ( 1870—40,849.. 

7 irrigated < 

Counties ( 1890—250,283. ———■ 

Increase 510 per cent. 


Population of (1870 —41,131.. ——■ 

7 Non-Irrigat-^ 

ed Counties ( 1890—67,778.. ■ Increase 64 per cent. 

Wealth of Los Angeles County, 1870, $6,918,074; 1890, 

$67,121,610. Increase over 955 per cent. 

irrigation as a wealth producer. 

Wealth in 7 (1870-822,513,820.. — 

Irrigated •< 

Counties ( 1890—8207,216,.567. ■ ' .. . . 

Increase 820 per cent. 


Wealth in 7 (1870-812,550,341.. — mmP 

Non-Irrigat- ■< 

ed Counties (1890—845,039,322.. Increase 258 per cent. r' 

With 20 per cent of the total population of the State^ 
Southern California secured 50 per cent of the total increase 
in population, 1870-1890. 


These results have by irrigation been secured on 
lands before arid and desert. 

2. The prospecting of such lands wdth deep drilling 
where surface 'water is not available, as "we have shown, 
will in many cases lead to the discovery of artesian 






79 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 

water, petroleum in many forms, sucli as gas, rock oil, 
asphaltum, naptlialine, or some one of the many other 
valuable minerals, which go to make up a rich and 
prosperous people. The wealth so produced should by 
law be secured to the operative and actual producers, 
so as to sustain these in the highest state of civili¬ 
zation. 

WHAT SHALL THE IRRIGATOR RAISE? 

Sec. 4.—1. The comparative value of wheat with 
other common concentrated foods fed dairy cattle, can 
be noted in the following table, which shows the num¬ 
ber of pounds of each part digestible in 100 pounds: 

Carbo- 

Protein hydrates Fat Nutritive 


Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. ratio. 

Wheat . 9.3 55.8 1.8 1: 6.4 

Corn. 7.1 62.7 4.2 1:10.1 

Oats. 8.3 44.7 4.1 1: 5.9 

Wheat Bran. 12.6 44.1 2.9 1:4.0 


According to this table, wheat has more digestible 
protein than corn or oats, but less than wheat bran. 
It certainly has a feeding value of high class, and feed¬ 
ers are beginning to realize that this is the case. 

2. It is estimated that the average profit per acre to 
the potato growers in the Greely country, Colorado, 
is about $67.50 

3. In 1893 the average yield of fruits per acre in 
the state of Colorado, as shown by the fruit growers 
association of that state were as follows: Strawberries, 
$350, blackberries, $600; raspberries, $400; currants, 
$500. 

4. A Colorado gardner from three acres of land 
along the Platte river, sold this year $1500 worth of 
pickled onions. 







80 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 


ii 

IRRIGATION. : 




WITH BABBIT 
OR 

GRAPHITE BEARINGS. 


The 10 foot Gem with 10 inch 
stroke, and the 12 foot Gem with 
12 inch stroke, are best adapted 
to Irrigating Pumps. 


FOR WELLS FROM 15 TO 25 FEET DEEP. 

5 in. Gause Pump, 10 ft. Gem or 10 ft. Halladay Mill 

6 “ “ “ 12 ft. Gem or 13 ft. Halladay. 

8 “ “ “ 12 ft. Gem or 14 ft. Halladay. 

In some cases it may be necessary to use the mill on 
the medium length stroke, but they will in most cases 
work nicely on the long stroke. 

FOR LIFTING WATER FROM 25 TO 40 FEET. 

4 inch Gause Pump, 8 foot Gem or 10 foot Halladay. 

5 “ “ “ 10 “ “ “ 12 “ “ O 

6 “ “ “ 12 “ “ “ 14 “ 

8 “ “ “ 16 “ Halladay or 16 foot U. S. 

The Gem in all cases herein to be Triple Motion, 
Long Stroke. 

The 12 foot Gem or 14 foot U. S. or Halladay, will 
operate the 4 or 5 inch pumps in wells from 40 to 75 
feet deep. 

These combinations are adapted to either open or 
drive wells. 












Irrigation and Petroleum. 


SI 


IKA C. HUBBEL. 

We have here taken the liberty of giving nearly in 
full a paper by l\Ir. ITubbel as printed by the Irriga¬ 
tion Fanner. It being too seientihc to leave out. 

I li R l r, A TIO N AI A C111N E R Y, 

During the Inter-state Irrigatio-n Convention held in 
Omaha, March 1, 1804, the following interesting paper 
on the subject of irrigation machinery was read by Ira 
C. Ilubbel, of Kansas City, Mo.: 

“ Mr. President and Gentlemen: It is germain 
to this subject to here say that every one owes it to 
himself and to his neighbor to irrigate everv foot of 
ground possible, for as additional acres are watered 
year after yeai-, the rainfall will be increased. 

“Now for the modes of handling water. 

“In that we are all jierhajis more accustonied to 
windmills emjiloyed in pumping water than other aj)- 
pliances, suppose we see what can be done with this 
means for i-aising water. Windmills have a rated 
horse power ca})acity and this power is })redicated upon 
a wind of twenty miles per hour, and which is termed 
a strong wind. A better average wind for our pur- 
})Ose, and one considered more conservative, is of 
fifteen miles per hour. In this connection it would 
be well to remember that the power of a windmill of 
any diameter increases or decreases as the square of 
the velocity of the wind in miles per hour, and that, 
therefore, a mill of 3-horse power cajiacity in a lo-mile 
wind will have but 1^ horse power in a 10-mile wind. 

“ It should also be remembered that a mill of any 
diameter will handle a greater or less quantity of water 
as the total vertical height of the discharge in feet is 
decreased or increased—for instance, a mill that raise 
100 gallons })er minute 100 feet vertically will elevate 


82 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 

200 gallons per minute 50 feet vertically, for 100 gal¬ 
lons multiplied by 100 feet and by 8^ pounds (the 
weight of one gallon of water) and by one minute of 
time equal .83333 foot pounds, and 200 multiplied by 
50 multiplied by 8^ multiplied by one equal .83333 
foot pounds. Here is a most excellent place to say 
that the habit of resolving work to be done to foot 
pounds is good practice, and it will restrain some of 
us from chasing perpetual motion. Remember above 
all things that one pound of any substance (no matter 
what) raised one foot vertically in one minute of time, 
or the equivalent, requires a mechanical force of one 
foot pound plus the friction that is due to the means 
employed, and you may as well try to lift yourself into 
heaven by your boot tops as to evade this principle. 

“ A cubic foot of water weighs approximately sixty 
two and one-half pounds and contains approximately 
seven and one-half gallons of eight and one-third 
pounds each. A mechanical horse power is .33000 
foot pounds. It therefore requires .0002527 (mil¬ 
lionths) horse power to raise one gallon of water one 
foot vertically in one minute. This is net work 
realized, and makes no allowance for friction at any 
point. Allowing for all friction about 34 per cent 
the constant becomes .00034 (one hundred thous¬ 
andths.) Dividing one horse power by this latter con¬ 
stant we find that one horse power will laise 2,' 
041.1765 gallons of water one foot, 1,470 two feet, or 
about 294 gallons ten feet, or 118 gallons twenty-hve 
feet in one minute. Remember in checking these 
figures that these quantities are predicated upon an al¬ 
lowance of a little over 34 per cent for friction. 

A PRACTICAL APPLICATION. 

“Now for a practical application of the constant 
.00034. A farmer has a 10-foot windmill. His well 
is 30 feet deep, has plenty of water, and by raising the 
w^ater on to a knoll 25 feet above the top of the w’ell he 


83 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 
can construct a reservoir, say 150 feet long, ^75 feet 
wide, and say four feet deep. How much water can 
he rely upon liis mill furnishing? Basing the calcula¬ 
tion upon the average wind of 15 miles per hour, the 
10-foot mill will yield .56 horse power, which, divided 
hy (30 })lus 25 equals 55 times .00034) equals 29.9465 
gallons per minute. Proof, 2941.1765 gallons one net 
horse power will raise one foot in one minute, multi¬ 
plied by 56, divided by 55 equals 29.9465. Another 
proof, 29.9465 gallons multiplied by 83 pounds multi¬ 
plied by 55 feet multiplied by 1 minute divided by 
.33000 equals 41592 net horse power to which add 
34.64 per cent, which is the allowance for friction in 
the constant .00034, we have actual horse power 
.55999. It is therefore safe to rely upon 30 gallons 
per minute or 1,800 gallons per hour. The reservoir 
specified will hold about 340,000 gallons of water. It 
is conceded that a mill will work about one-third of 
the twenty-four hours, or eight hours, yielding a maxi¬ 
mum quantity of 14,400 gallons per day, or filling the 
reservoir in about twenty-four days, or in the 180 days 
water is wanted, this 10-foot mill will yield about 2,- 
550,000 gallons, or sufficient water to take care of ten 
acres of ground. Whilst it is true that the force of the 
wind is as the square of its volocity, so is it true that 
the power of windmills is as the square of their 
diameter; therefore, a 12-foot wheel will do nearly 50 
per cent more work than a 10-foot, and a 14-foot mill 
will do nearly 100 per cent more work than a 10-foot. 
Therefore, with an ample water supply the farmer in 
the case just cited would be amply justified in throw¬ 
ing away the 10-foot wheel and erecting a 14-foot mill. 

“The windmill only has been spoken of so far. To 
elevate water by wind power requires some form of a 
pump head and cylinder operated by the mill. To 
facilitate selection of a cylinder for the work, as has 
been endeavored to help select a windmill for the duty, 
other constants are here given. Drawing from de- 


%4 Irrigation and Petroleum. 

(luctioiis of Mr. B. A. McAllister in his paper of No¬ 
vember 23, 1893, at Wichita, it is determined that an 
acre of land will need during the season 32,6V0 cubic 
feet, or 245,900 gallons of water, or an average of 
1,366 gallons per day (season called 180 days); or ten 
acres require 13,660 gallons per day. Wind power 
for the day, eight hours, or 1,706^ gallons per hour, 
or about 28^ gallons jier minute. 

“ If you will s(]uare the diameter in inches of the 
water piston or })lunger in a cylinder or pump and. 
multiply that result by the constant .00034 and by the 
length of the stroke in inches, and by the number of 
strokes the piston or plunger makes per minute, you 
have the actual ca])acity of the cylinder in gallons per 
minute. There is, however, a loss here, as more or 
less water leaks past the piston or plunger, so that in 
reality we only realize about 80 per cent efficiency; 
therefore, our constant should be for actual results 
.00272 (one liundred thousandtlis.) The capacity of 
a cylinder 6-inch diameter, 8-inch stroke, 40 strokes 
per minute, determined by long process, is: Area of 
6-inch ])iston equals 6 multiplied by 6 multiplied by 
.7854 equals 28.2744 multiplied by 8 inches multiplied 
by 40 divided by 231 e<pials 39,168 gallons theoretical 
capacity multiplied by 80 per cent equals 31.3344 gal¬ 
lons actual. Determined by the constant, 6 multiplied 
by 6 multiplied by 8 multiplied by 40 multiplied by 
.00272 equals 31,344 gallons. In the problem just 
stated we want 28^ gallons })er minute for our 10-acre, 
tract of land. Assuming that the mill employed will 
make an average of 40 revolutions per minute, and the 
length of the stroke to be 8 inches; the square root of 
28.5 divided by (.00272 niulti|)lied by 40 multiplied by 
8) equals 5.72, or say a cylinder 6 inches in diameter. 

“From the preceding the size of the mill or cylinder 
for any location may be determined and the farmer 
purchase an article he knows will do his work. To 
demonstrate the author’s faith in the figures herein 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 85 

given, lie begs to say that if the farmers will supply 
the water he will furnish the address of reputable 
dealers who will turiiish windmills and ])umps guaran¬ 
teeing the results given. 

ANOTHER SVSTEIM EX 1*1. A INKl). 

‘‘ VVe pass now to another mode of handling water. 

“In many jilaces there are running streams, but the 
expense of a ditch with all implied, is a prohibitory 
tariff so far as the individual farmer is concerned. 
How is he going to get some of that water on to his 
higher ground? In such instances hydraulic I’ams will 
be found especially adapted. In general terms, you 
can safely rely iqion the ram raising and discharging 
one-seventh of the water jiassing to an elevation five 
times the fall. For example, su])pose location lies 
where a fall of ten feet can be had by constructing a 
short ditch or inexpensive dam and that a constant 
supply of 350 gallons of water per minute can be re¬ 
lied upon; then the ram will deliver into a reservoir 
fifty feet above the ram fifty gallons of water per min¬ 
ute or 3,000 gallons per hour, or 72,000 per day, for a 
ram, like Pinkerton, never sleeps! A ram of this 
capacity would not cost to exceed $250. 

“In using rams the ram should be about 50 feet 
from the supply and the water should be led to the 
ram through a pipe of ample diameter and as nearly 
straight as possible, and the discharge pipe should be 
full size for quantity of water to be handled and as 
straight as conditions will permit. The quantity of 
water discharged by the ram will decrease as the verti¬ 
cal height of the discharge increases over five times 
the height of the fall. Here no other formula) can be 
given. Each location must be treated independently. 

“In similiar locations and with artificial lakes or 
reservoirs made by damming draws, pulsometers, 
ejectors, jet pumps, centrifugal pumps, rotary pumps 
and steam pumps are also applicable. 


86 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 

“Treating them in the order named, ])nlsoineters, 
ejectors and jet pumps. These three means are classi¬ 
fied under one head, in that to a great extent they trot 
in the same class. With each must be employed a 
steam boiler to supply tlie necessary power for operat¬ 
ing, and your speaker considers this impractical in the 
average instance, and where the conditions justify 
using a boiler, then unquestionably the means to be 
employed are found in duplex pum])ing engines, and 
of which something will be said later. In any place 
where pulsorneters, ejectors or jet pumps would be 
considered, your speaker earnestly recommends the 
use of a centrifugal pump driven by a gasoline en¬ 
gine, in that the combination requires a minimum of 
attention; provided the purchaser does unduly scrimp 
his a})propriation for the plant. 

“ A 4-inch centrifugal pump with a gasoline engine 
of 24 ^ net horse power will raise 9,000 gallons of water 
per hour twenty-five feet vertically, and it can be 
o])erated twenty-four hours per day, or less as desired, 
and at nominal expense, as will be subsequently, 
shown. In purchasing a combination of this class get 
the best that is offered, and have both the engine and 
the pump supplied with liberal oil cups for all bear¬ 
ings, so that after starting the combination can be left 
to itself two to four hours as occasion may demand. 
Topographical conditions favorable, many a farmer 
can irrigate a large portion of a quarter section with 
the combination of wdiich we have just spoken. 

PUMPED BY AN ENGINE. 

“ Referring again to Mr. McAllister’s deductions: 
An acre requires during the season 245,900 gallons of 
water. Running our gasoline engine eight hours per 
day (same as a windmill) we get 72,000 gallons of 
water per day, or 12,960,000 for the season, or suffi¬ 
cient for 52 acres. If the pumping plant is run 10 
hours per day, the result is increased in the same pro- 


87 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 
portion, and 65 acres are covered. Such a combina¬ 
tion will cost less than 1650 delivered at a very remote 
point and including the services of a competent en¬ 
gineer to thoroughly instruct in the use of the appar¬ 
atus. The estimate of cost is upon an exceedingly 
liberal basis for freight, etc. To this cost must be 
added such piping, etc., as necessary, and a wildly 
liberal allowance for this would be |15(), or a total of 
$800, to make sure a crop year in and year out on a 
minimum of 50 acres of ground. Will it pay? The 
cost of the pumping plant is $16 per acre. Statistics 
show that the grain per bushel on irrigated land is far 
in excess of the yield on land not regularly watered. 
One instance reported shows a gain of about 400 per 
cent. Suppose we get 16 bushels of wheat without ir¬ 
rigation and 24 with, gain eight bushels per acre at 40 
cents per bushel, yields $3.20 net gain per acre per 
year, or one-fifth the cost of our plant. Twenty per 
cent on an investment is good returns. In reality it is 
often the difference between a full crop and no Crop on 
the 52 acres. 

“Centrifugal pumps can be used advantageously 
only on moderate heights; for greater heights power or 
rotary pumps may be employed. The cost of these 
j)umps is somewhat in excess of the ones just men¬ 
tioned. A power pump of same capacity as the cen¬ 
trifugal pump mentioned for the duty s})ecified would 
increase the cost by about $200, and if same quantity 
of water was to be raised to a height of 50 feet it 
would require an engine of twice the net horse power 
of the one specified, because of the additional eleva¬ 
tion, and which would add to our cost further about 
$250, or making a new total of $1,250 to put water up 
50 feet vertically for 50 acres of ground, or $25 per 
acre. In California parties have expended as much as 
$200 per acre for the water right alone. 

“ To operate a 2^ horse power gasoline engine ten 
hours ])er day will cost less than $40 per month, figur- 


5(5 Irrigation and Pet^'oleum. 

ing the cost of gasoline at 20 cents a gallon, against 
an average price of 10 cents; allowing one gallon of 
lubricating oil at 25 cents per gallon per day, and for 
sundry odds and ends 95 cents per day. The actual 
cost would j)robably be nearer ^20 than ^40, but we do 
not want to mislead any one. For capacities of this 
class of pumps reference must be had to the catalogues 
of the several makers. 

“Taking up the question of steam pumps this paper 
is ended. 

“ In situations where large acreage is to be covered, 
thereby demanding large volumes of water, the service 
will be best performed by compound duplex pumping 
engines especially designed to meet the requirements 
of the particular location. To, however, start thought 
an instance is here cited where the speaker was called 
upon for specifications for a pumping plant having a 
capacity 4,000,000 gallons per twenty-four hours, or 
about 2,778 gallons per minute, with a total vertical 
lift of 65 feet. For this plant it was recommended to 
use a complete duplicate plant—two compound duplex 
engines, two horizontal return tubular boilers set in . 
battery with independent furnaces, a duplex boiler 
feeder with an aspirator for auxiliary feed, and the 
piping so arranged that either boiler could be used to 
drive either pumping engine, or both boilers to drive 
both, or in any way circumstances make advisable. 
Huch a plant erected complete, ready for use anywhere 
within 400 miles of the Missouri river rating points, 
would cost approximately |?6,000, or less, as freights, 
etc., were less. This exclusive of water pipes to carry 
water to distributing point, which of cast iron and for 
some 4,000 feet, as required at the point in question, 
would cost !|?8,000 according to location. Tiling can , 
be safely used for the discharge pipe in a great many 
instances, and thereby the expense of distribution ma¬ 
terially decreased. Such a plant will water about 
3,000 acres of land. 

i 

.. \ 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 


89 




COST OF orERATION. 

“ The cost of operation of this plant will be about 
as follows i)er month, working full capacity: 


Engineers, first and second, who will do the firing.$ 175 

Oils, waste, etc. 25 

Coal, at 83 per ton, slack. 450 

Incidental expenses. 150 

Total per month.$ 800 

Or for six months.84,800 


“ Or a running expense of about 81.60 per acre for 
the season, independent of interest on first cost and 
de])reciation of puinj)ing plant, which at 8 per cent 
each would be 8860, or 32 cents additional per acre, 
and to this add 8 per cent interest on cost of pipe line, 
and say 4 per cent on cost of pipe line or depreciation, 
making further charge of 8060, or 32 cents per acre, 
or a total cost of 86,720, or 82.24 per acre. 

“The plant just outlinod will be erected by a gen¬ 
tleman in a neighboring state for a tract of land of 
much less acreage than the plant’s actual capacity. 
His water supply will be maintained by a dam con¬ 
structed across a draw, whereby an ample supply of 
water is secured. ” 

TO ACCOMl’LISn liEST RESULTS 

in Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, or other states of 
similiar location, from 5 to 10 inches of water should 
be applied each season, varying according to the rain 
fall. In states further west perhaps more would be 
needed. 

Windmills will furnish water profitably from wells 
as deep as 200 feet for irrigating all kinds of fruits and 
vegetables. 

Apples, cherries, peaches, grapes, blackberries, rasp¬ 
berries, and other small fruits will produce abundantly 
and profitably in any of the w^estern states, if well 
watered. 










90 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 

Windmill irrigation is no experiment, it has been 
tried thoroughly and never found wanting. 

The wind blows at a pumping velocity on an average 
of 10 hours per day for the entire year. 

FACTS AVORTH REMEMBERING. 

27,154 gallons of water will cover one acre one inch 
in depth. 

A reservoir containing one acre of ground filled 
Avith water four feet in depth contains 1,303,392 gal¬ 
lons, which is sufficient to cover 48 acres one inch in 
depth. 

A miners inch of Avater is equal to 9 gallons per 
minute. 

A cubic foot of water contains 7.48 gallons and 
weighs 62^- pounds. 

One gallon of Avater contains 231 cubic inches and 
weighs 8^ pounds. 

Doubling the diameter of the cylinder increases its 
capacity four times. 

Square the diameter of the cylinder, multiply by 
length of stroke in inches, then multiply by .0034 and 
you have the capacity per stroke in gallons. 


LIST PRICES—GAUSE PUMTS. 

Fig 1. For Drive Wells. 

4 inch bore, 5 feet long, for 4—1^2 in. suction pipes,. $27. 


91 





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92 


Irrigation and Petroleum. 
STANDARD WROUGHT IRON PIPE. 



Revised and Adojded Api'il 13, 1893. 



BUTT 

-WELDED. 


Nominal Size In¬ 

Price per foot 

Price per foot 

Nominal Weight 

side Diameter 

Black 

Galvanized 

per foot. 

INCH KS 



POUNDS 


S .07K 

§ .10 

1.12 

1 

.11 ^ 

.14 

1.67 


.14^ 

.19 

2.24 


LAP- 

WELDED. 


Nominal Size In¬ 

Price per foot 

Price per foot 

Nominal Weight 

side Diameter 

Black 

Galvanized 

per foot 

INCHES 



POUNDS 


S .24 

8 .28 

2.68 

2 

.33 

.38 

3.61 


.50 

.57 

5.74 

3 

.64 

.70 

7.54 

4 

.90 

1.05 

10.66 

5 

1.28 

1.60 

14.50 

6 

1.65 

2.00 

18.76 

r* 

2.10 


23.27 

8 

2.75 


28.18 


PRICE LIST BRASS JACKET POINTS. 

MADE OF GALVANIZED WROUGHT IKON PIPE. 


Trade 

Number 

Size in 
Diameter 

Length of 
Point 

Length of 
Jacket 

No. of 
Holes 

Number of 
Gauze, 60, 
Price per 
Dozen 

136 

114 in. 

24 in. 

18 in. 

120 

$ 48.00 

140 

P/^ “ 

30 “ 

24 “ 

162 

60.00 

144 

P/2 “ 

36 “ 

30 “ 

198 

72.00 

146 

P/2 “ 

42 “ 

36 “ 

240 

84.00 

148 

P/2 “ 

48 “ 

42 “ 

276 

96.00 

l.W 

114 “ 

.54 “ 

48 “ 

312 

108.00 

152 

114 “ 

60 “ 

54 “ 

348 

120.00 

154 

114 “ 

66 “ 

60 “ 

384 

132.00 

156 

114 “ 

72 

66 “ 

420 

144.00 

160 

2 

24 “ 

18 '• 

144 

75.00 

1&4 

2 “ 

30 “ 

24 “ 

208 

90.00 

168 

2 

36 •• 

30 “ 

264 

105.00 S 

170 


42 “ 

36 “ 

288 

120.00; .J 

172 

t> 

48 “ 

42 

336 

135.OOL# 


PRICE LIST OF FITTINGS FOR GAUSE PUMPS. 


IH in. 2 In. 

Elbows. S .35 $ .50 

Nipples.38 .49 

Unions.60 .80 


In fitting pumps for open wells, the cylinder can be 
placed from 10 to 15 feet above water and use smaller 
size pipe for suction. 

United States Supply Co., 

Omaha, Nebraska. 





















Irrigation and Petroleum. 


9S 


FAIRBANKS, MORSE & CO. 


















Irrigation and Petroleum. 


94 


PRICE LIST NEBRASKA PUMPS. 


Size No. 

Cylinder 

1 

Capacity in gallons 

1 per inch of stroke 

Diameter Suction 
Flange 

Weight, pounds, in¬ 
cluding 10 ft. Dis¬ 
charge pipe, no 
suction -pipe nor 
point 

1 

Price complete as 
per cut, with 10 ft. 
Spiral Galvanized 
Pipe, but no suc¬ 
tion pipe or point 
included 

Add for each addi¬ 
tional foot of dis¬ 
charge pipe or¬ 
dered 

Drive Pt. 

Diameter I 

Length 

Maximum 

Stroke 

Diameter in 

inches 

Price per foot 

No. 60 gauge 

4 

6 

18 

15 

.1224 

4 

175 

1 .30,00. 

^.80 

4'/2 

$4.65 


8 

18 

15 

.2176 

6 

250 

45.00 

1.00 

5 

a 

4.65 

^ 4.0 

6 

10 

18 

15 

.34 

6 

360 

60.00 

1.25 

o 

8 

O , VJ 

7.65 

7 

12 

20 

16 

.4896* 

8 

560 

85.00 

1 60 

10 

12.65 


We give capacities of these pumps “per inch of 
stroke” to help you get capacity quickly for any desired 
length of stroke. For instance: 0 inch cylinder, 8 
inch stroke, yields .1224x8 or .9792 gallons or nearly 
1 gallon per stroke, or on 10 inch stroke this cylinder 
will discharge .1224x10 or 1.224 gallons per stroke. 

For price on iron pipe for suction pipe, see any 
standard list, and for smaller sizes of drive points, see 
standard lists. ' 


























Irrigation and Petroleum. 


95 


THE FAIRRAXKS-CIIARTER GASOLINE ENGINE. 

We claim that “The Fairbanks-Charter Gas Engine” 
is without exception the best engine of the kind. 

It is exceedingly simple in construction, easy in op¬ 
eration; combines a less number of parts than any 
other make of engine, and daily demonstrates its su¬ 
periority over others. 



No. 

Actual 

Horse 

Power 

Indicated 

Horse 

Power 

Pulley 
on Engine 
Shaft 

Speed 

of 

Engine 

Shipping 

Weight 

complete 

Price Com¬ 
plete without 
Water Tank 

0 

2K 

3 

12x 4 

300 

1,700 

$. 

1 

3M 


16x 6 

250 

2,150 


2 

5M 

7 

18x 8 

225 

3,200 


3 


10 

24x10 

200 

4,100 


4 

lOK 

14 

28x12 

180 

5,800 


5 

15 

20 

32x14 

175 

7,500 


6 

27 

36 

40x18 

160 

13,000 


7 

38 

50 

44x20 

160 

16,000 


8 

75 

95 

48x24 

150 

24,000 



Pulleys are made with straight faces for shifting 


belts. 


We furnish instructions for setting up and operating 
“The Fairbanks-Charter Engines,” together with 
foundation plans and dimension sheets. 















Irrigation and Petroleum. 


06 


FAIKIiANKS-MORSE CENTKIKU(;AL PUMPS. 



Simplest, most durable ai.d of highest efficiency of any 
pumps made within their range of duty. 

No valves, no jnston, no “nothing,” just pump. 

Our pumps will handle any kind of water, and without 
injury to the pump, whether the water is “ loaded with sand, 
gravel or buck-shot.” 

Our patterns are new and cover all late improvements; 
pumps are heavy and substantial, and as the only jjarts to 
wear are the bearings for the shaft, the wear is practicallv 
nothing if oil is properly used. We are prepared to furnish 
right or left hand pumps. The cut shows a right hand pump. 


LIST OF CAPACITIES AA’I) PRICES. 


Size discharge 
opening in 
inches 

Piconomical ca¬ 
pacity in gal¬ 
lons per min¬ 
ute 

Actual capacity 
' in gallons per 

1 minut(! 

! Horse power re¬ 
quired for each 
foot of lift, min¬ 
imum quantity 

Diameter and 
face of pulley 
in inches 

Price of horizon¬ 
tal iron pump 

Price of vertical 
iron pump 

No. Ui 

•20 40 

10)0 

.06:4 

.Ox .0 

■f 3.0 

f :40 “ 

lli 

40-00 

:>-2.0 

.08.0 

6x 6 

00 

40 

H .) 

60-80 

32.0 

.126 

7x 8 

70 

60 


80-100 

400 

. 190 

7x 8 

80 

70 

“ 3 

1-20-180 

67.0 

.270 

7x 8 

9.0 

7.0 

“ 4 

•>00 300 

13(X) 

.42.0 

8x10 

i:40 

110 

“ 5 

3.00 iiOO 

1900 

..004 

10x10 

16.0 

140, 

“ (5 

.000 700 

2700 

.76.0 

12x12 

200 

170 

“ H 

900-1300 

. 4800 

1.10 

18x12 

310 

260 


























Irrigation and Petroleit in. 


!)7 


OHSERVA'riON. 

1st. When a large quantity of water is to be lian- 
dled, as in draining land, or in supplying water for 
irrigation, and the heiglit water is to he laised is less 
than 25 feet, best-results will be obtained by using one 
large cylinder (size given in table), and using for dis¬ 
charge and suction pipe same size as the diameter of 
cylinder. 

2nd. When one cylinder of sufficient diameter can¬ 
not be obtained, then two or more cylinders may be 
substituted. Each cylinder requires a separate dis¬ 
charge pipe. 

3rd. Lift pumps are best adapted to irrigation and 
drainage. 

4th. For irrigation, where water is to be stored in 
an elevated tank and where a lift pump cannot be used 
successfully, a force pump may be used.. 

5th. Discharge pipe should never be less than one- 
lialf the diameter of cylinder in all depths of wells, and 
the more nearly the discharge pipe equals the cylinder 
in diameter, the better the results. 

6th. Back geared mills give best results when 
working on intermediate or longest stroke. 


PUMPING CAPACITIES OP WIND MILLS. 


Irrigation and Petroleuni 


OS 


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14 foot 
Back 
Geared 
has 7, 914 
and 12 
in. stroke 

500 bbls 
5000 

gal. per hr. 

250 bbls 
7500 

gal. per hr. 

i an *- 

is 

<. 00 ^ 
i 0 0 
\nO a 
.«o . 

1*2 ^ 

^ be 

100 bbls 

3000 

gal per hr. 

.50 bbls 

1.500 ‘ 

gal. per hr. 

2 ■ 

S-i 

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be 

25 bbls 

■ 7.50 . 

gal. per hr; 

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12 foot 
Back 
Geared 
has 9 
and 12 
in. stroke 

351 bbls 
10,622 

gal. per hr. 

177 bbls 
5311 

gal. per hr. 

i 118 bbls 

1 , 3540 1 

gal. per hr. 

71 bbls 
2124 

gal. per hr. 

35 2-5 bbls 
1062 

gal. per hr. 

3 £ 

;q2 OJ 

CO .^2 
01 c8 
be 

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be 

14 bbls 

424 

gal. per hr. 

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10 foot 
Back 
Geared 
has 6, 8 
and 10 
in. stroke 

244 bbls 
7332 

gal. per hr. 

122 bbls 

3666 

gal. per hr. 

.2 5 

£)..*< 0:1 

. 

GO C8 

bC 

44 4-5 bbls 
1466 

gal. per hr. 

24 2-5 bbls 
733 

gai. per hr. 

16 bbls 
488 

gal. per hr. 

12 bbls 
366 

gal. per hr. 

9 % bbls 
293 

gal. per hr. 

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f- y—* 

8 foot 
Back 
Geared 
has 6 
and 8 
in. stroke 

1 

1.50 bbls 
4700 

gal. per hr. 

78 bbls 
23.50 

gal. per hr. 

51 bbls 
1.566 

gal. per hr. 

31 bbls 
910 

gal. per hr. 

1 15'4 bbls 
470 

gal. per hr. 

C 

00 

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0 

':S 

bo 

xn ^ 

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£5 01 a 

GO ^ 
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be 

6 bbls 

188 

gal. per hr. 

aaj.YAV 

GNI^L^in 1 

•\ 1 

5 feet 

10 feet 

15 feet 

25 feet 

.50 feet 

75 feet 

100 feet 

125 feet 






















































































































































Irrigation and Petroleum 


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354 

gal. per hr. 

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1 

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1 • ' ‘ 

8 bbls 
. 244 

gal. per hr. 

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ft 

C8 

be 

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be 

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1 

5 bbls 

150 

gal. per hr. 

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Above estimates are based on 12 to 15 mile wind per hour and mill placed directly over well, mill working on intermediate stroke. 









































































































































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